ference with the local circulation either by tension or by the spread of coagulation within the blood vessels.

"The spread of the process in a patient of low reparative power would not be so very exceptional or surprising. Was the President such a patient? Apparently he was. According to Dr. Wasdin, when the incision was reopened toward the end of the fifth day 'no effort' was required to open it throughout its entire length, although only the track of the bullet was affected. That expression would hardly have been used unless he had intended to indicate that the amount of repair usual after that lapse of time had not taken place. Then, the President was fiftyeight years of age, had led a sedentary, laborious and anxious life, and had a complexion and appearance which, for some years, had been commented upon as indicative of impaired vitality.

ACTED WITH PROMPTNESS.

"It is evident that the surgeons, notably Doctors Mann and Mynter, with whom the first decision lay, acted with commendable promptitude and courage in undertaking the operation, and showed excellent judgment in its course and skill in its execution.

"They did all that could properly have been done and nothing that should have been left undone. The usual causes of death after such injury and operation were escaped or removed or prevented, and their patient succumbed to a complication which is so rare that it could not reasonably have been anticipated, and could not have been averted.

"The President died because he could not carry on the processes of repair and because the effort to do so was more than the vitality of the tissues involved could support. This, of course, excluded the possible presence of poison brought by the bullet or of destructive action by the pancreatic juices. If either of those was a factor, it needs only to substitute it in the statement for the assumed defective vitality of the patient. Whatever cause acted, it was unrecognizable at the operation and uncontrolable then or subsequently.

"There has been some criticism of the confident assurance of

recovery made by those in attendance after the fifth day. To us the progress of the case up to that time appears fully to have justified those assurances and the public anxiety to have required them."

The review of the case closes with the following reference to the doctors: "They did their work skillfully and judiciously, their behavior was dignified, restrained and worthy of the best traditions of the profession, and they have the misfortune, when success seemed to have been secured, of seeing it overthrown by a complication which could not have been foreseen or avoided. They deserve our admiration and sympathy, not our criticism."

CHAPTER XXIII.

Origin and Rise of Anarchism-Its Theory and Practice-Aims to Overthrow All Lawful Government-Assassinations From Alexander II. to President McKinley.

THE civilized world looked on aghast when the apostles of disorder, the believers in the "rights of the people" as they phrased it, seized Paris in the name of the Commune on March 17, 1871, and held it until the rightful government of the republic regained control of the capital on May 27. The frightful excesses of these two months have never been surpassed in the annals of war, and without knowing it the civilized world was beholding a demonstration of what government and social existence would be like under the supremacy of a set of revolutionists, known later as "anarchists," but who then had no such convenient sobriquet to designate themselves or their beliefs.

Neither Communism nor Anarchism originated during the Commune. On the contrary, the general idea which took a most violent shape in the Slav and Latin countries in the 80's grew out of the revolutions of 1848. Proudhon in France and Karl Marx in Germany, and, above all, Michael Bakunin, a Russian, all ardent social reformers, were the real creators of the international movement.

Bakunin was born in Russia, 1814, and died in Berne, in 1876. He took part in the German revolutionary movements of 1848, and was the founder of Nihilism in his own country. He was exiled to Siberia in 1851, but escaped to Japan, got back to England by 1861, and in 1865 he was one of the organizers of the "International Association of Workingmen," a pet project of

Karl Marx.

Bakunin, Marx and all other reformers of all grades, from philosophic idealists to downright cut-throats, carried on the propaganda of the International Association until 1872, when there was a split, and at the Hague conference the Socialists proper,

who believed in orderly reform and governmental methods, drew apart from the extremists, who met in what was really the first Anarchist congress in the world, held the same year at SaintImier, Switzerland.

By this time, 1872, the extremists were well organized in most of the leading States of Europe, particularly in Russia, and the Latin countries. In Italy, Counts Caffiero and Malatesta were followers of Bakunin and leaders in the movement. They had a large following, and the name by which they were known was Internationalists, and they constituted the "Federazione Internazionale dei Lavoratori" (International Federation of Workers), with the motto, "Atheism, Anarchy and Collectivism," which was the Italian branch of Karl Marx's London organization, but which from the first, owing to the disturbed state of things, politically and economically, in Italy, had taken a more radical turn. Marx might believe in a constructive, peaceful revolution of society.

FLOURISHED IN ITALY.

Con.

Not so the Italians, who were anarchistic at the start. sequently from 1872 to 1880 the anarchist movement flourished in Italy, while in other and freer countries it languished, save in Spain, and the Italians were at the head of every workers' association for economic purposes. In 1876 they took possession of the town of Benevento. Amongst the revolutionists there were Caffiero, the Russian revolutionist and writer, Stepniak, and others; but the movement was immediately suppressed by the government, which realized for the first time that Italy as well as Europe was confronted by a new and very dangerous social

movement.

This early propaganda of anarchism was largely due, it must be said, to the missionary work of those who took part in the so-called Social Democratic Alliance, which Bakunin founded at Geneva, Switzerland, in 1868. The Alliance, like the International Association, was divided into a central committee and national bureaus. But together with this division went a secret

organization. Bakunin, the pronounced enemy of all organizations in theory, created in practice a secret society quite according to the rules of Carbonarism, a hierarchy which was in total contradiction to the anti-authority tendencies of the society.

According to the secret statutes of the "Alliance" three grades were recognized: (1) "The International Brethren," 100 in number, who formed a kind of sacred college, and were to play the leading parts in the soon expected, immediate social revolution, with Bakunin at their head; (2) "The National Brethren," who were organized by the International Brethren into a national association in every country, but who were allowed to suspect nothing of the international organization; (3) lastly came the Secret International Alliance, the pendant of the public alliance, operating through the permanent central committee.

BECAME MORE VIOLENT.

The Alliance as an open organization did not last long, as it was amalgamated with the "International" in 1869, the extremists and conservatives all working together until their final separation in 1872. During the latter part of the 70's the extremists in all parts of Europe-Latins, Slavs, Teutons-became more and more violent, and it was about this time that the Governments of Europe began to look into the question of anarchism, though it had not yet revealed itself in all its true colors, for though Bakunin was an extremist he had not himself invented the propaganda "by the deed," which later on led to the series of attacks on the rulers of Europe, which respected no one were he autocrat or a parliamentary sovereign.

For

This idea of violence grew slowly as compared with the purely political idea that anarchists should in no way encourage any orderly form of government even if they were in power. instance, the Congress of Berne, which followed Bakunin's death in 1876, under the leadership of Elisee Reclus, officially blamed the Paris Commune of 1871 for constituting itself into an organized government. As irresponsible as the Commune had been, it had not been irresponsible enough for men like Reclus.