land development, the provinces having the greatest agricultural areas receive the greatest number of settlers, British Columbia and Alberta almost tying for first honors. The percentage of non-English speaking immigrants in the Eastern provinces is almost negligible.

There are only a few cities in Canada having a population of more than one hundred thousand: four in 1911, Montreal, Toronto, Winnipeg and Vancouver; and six in 1921, Hamilton and Ottawa having been added to the list. Montreal and Toronto, the only two with a population of over half a million, are less than ten per cent. foreign-born while Winnipeg and Vancouver are about twenty-five and thirty respectively. It would seem, therefore, that the problems of immigration both in their rural and urban aspects are largely western. It is quite the reverse in the United States. In Canada there is no such congestion of industrial populations of foreign origin as we find south of the international boundary; no such huddling in big tenements as one sees in New York City; but there is crowding and filth and bad sanitation in even small foreign quarters. And conditions among the immigrant farming people are often by no means ideal. Colonies of Hutterites, Mennonites, Doukhobors, Ruthenians, Mormons and others still maintain customs quite out of keeping with New World standards.

WORK IN CANADIANIZATION

With the outbreak of the World War, many Orders in Council were deemed necessary to prevent enemy activities, particularly in foreign colonies. Out of this situation arose work in Canadianization corresponding to Americanization. work inaugurated in the United States several years later. In both countries, aliens had been left unheeded so far as any effort to train them in citizenship was concerned until international affairs became so complicated that the presence of even small enemy groups looked menacing. It was found that

the formalities connected with turning an alien into a nominal citizen had gone on without any corresponding growth in affection for the country of adoption. It is surprising that a country like Canada, rent from the beginning by an inherited race problem, should have failed to train up new racial elements for citizenship. But such is the airy optimism of nations that their citizens rarely think of calamities until they are upon them.

DEPORTATIONS

Inducing immigrants to come to a country is often easier and less expensive than turning away undesirables after they have arrived. There are in Canada excluded classes as will be seen in the following chapter. They are in the main the classes excluded by United States laws. In spite of care exercised over ports of emigration, each year sees arrivals turned back to the country from which they came. In the years from 1910 to 1918, admission was refused to 170,138 of the 2,009,199 who arrived during that period. The number of rejections for the year 1922 was 3,076 out of 68,805 arrivals. Of these only 830 were rejected from 58,186 arrivals at ocean ports; the remainder were turned back at the various points along the international boundary. The large percentage here is due to the fact that objectionable immigrants expect to find easy entrance across an invisible boundary. The chief causes given for deportation are criminality, epilepsy, immorality, insanity, mental defects, neurasthenia, prostitution, public charges, tuberculosis, vagrancy, venereal diseases, and some causes not classified. The machinery for dealing with such cases is expensive, but it is a necessary expenditure if the country is to be free from persons sure to pollute its physical or moral health. Whatever divergence of opinion there may be about refusing admission into a country to people holding certain political or religious beliefs, there can be none as to keeping out those tainted physically, mentally or morally.

CRIME AND DEPENDENCY

It is always a difficult matter to determine how much of a contributing factor immigration is, in mental and moral defects and in criminality in any country. The general impression everywhere seems to be that crime particularly is increased by immigration. This opinion prevails in Canada as elsewhere, but Professor Smith in his valuable book; A Study of Canadian Immigration 13 does not think that a sufficient number of far reaching studies has been made in. this field to warrant dogmatic statement. To have any value, comparisons should be drawn from groups similar in age, sex and economic station. Where crime is concerned, there is no accuracy in comparing groups of foreigners made up largely of adult men, with native-born groups which include women and children. Obviously the surest way to determine the greatest incidence of crime is to compare convictions to adult population in each group. In Canada 14 this is seven per 10,000 foreign-born; and two per 10,000 Canadian-born. Taking only males over twenty-one, the ratio of delinquency to nationality is as follows:

The foreign-born thus appear to show in the groups studied about twice the ratio of crime of the British-born as well as the Canadian-born. It will be observed that in Canadian official records as in common parlance, the British, except Hindus, are not classed as foreigners. The figures just cited "Chapters 11, 12 and 13.

"Smith, A Study of Canadian Immigration, page 294–297.

are for the year 1911, a census year, and a typical pre-war year so far as immigration is concerned.

ILLITERACY OF IMMIGRANTS

With reference to the illiteracy of the immigrant the facts are much more obvious than in the matters just considered. Ninety per cent. of the people in Canada over the age of five years can read and write. Doctor Smith is apologetic on this point, explaining that the rate would be higher were it not for the presence in some localities of large numbers of children only a little above five, schools inaccessible parts of the year to young children in isolated places, and foreigners. It is not the rate for Canadian-born. People in the United States do not view with either alarm or apology illiteracy among small children. With adult immigrants the case is different. In this respect, we find in Canada that the foreignborn exhibit almost twice the degree of illiteracy of the native and British-born. With a return to normal immigration conditions, when the result of the enforcement of the literacy test included in the law of 1919, may be observed, this ratio may be considerably modified. That is the expectation in Canada.

IMMIGRANT SETTLEMENTS

There are in Canada as in the United States immigrant colonies where racial characteristics and adaptation may be observed. Canada has many Slavs on her western plains represented by the Czechs, Poles, Slovaks, Little Russians, Ruthenians, Rusniaks, Serbians, Croatians, Bosnians, Herzegovinians, Dalmatians, Slovenes and Bulgarians and these tend to settle in racial groups. The most numerous of these are the Ruthenians of whom there are more than a quarter of a million living in colonies in Manitoba, Alberta, Saskatchewan and British Columbia. The Ruthenians have usually been called Galicians in Canada because they migrated from Galicia. They are illiterate peasants inured to toil but without knowledge of New World farming methods, and lend

themselves easily to exploitation by the unscrupulous, yet they have often displayed perseverance and courage against great odds. When the World War broke out two battalions recruited in Northern Alberta 15 contained eighty and sixty-five per cent. of Ruthenians respectively.

The Finns constitute another group of some size. Related to the Slavs, they have belonged to both Sweden and Russia. Many of these immigrants, according to their superior countrymen, have come from the most ignorant and vicious class at home. In Canada, they are engaged in the lower forms of unskilled labor, and seem to give evidence of a marked hostility to the established order of things in their adopted home.

DOUKHOBORS INVITED TO CANADA

Canada's great adventure in opening her doors to suffering humanity was with the Doukhobors, an illiterate and fanatical brotherhood who, on account of their refusal to perform military service, incurred the displeasure of Russia where they and their forbears had been living, often at odds with the government, for at least a century and a half. After being nearly annihilated by the severe conditions of banishment, western Europe and America heard their cry of distress, and, during the late years of the nineteenth century raised funds and procured permission for their, removal to America. At a cost of $200,000 about eight thousand of these people were brought to western Canada. They were treated with great consideration en route and upon arrival. They were freed from the exactions of military service and given land in four different localities, at the rate of fifteen acres, in addition to money, for each member of the family. Contrary to agreement, they immediately began to establish themselves in communistic villages, as appears to have been their custom in Russia, and consequently came into conflict with the Dominion authorities in regard to citizenship and securing patents for the land; in fact they refused to conform to any of the laws of the country which were not in harmony with their own 16 Smith, A Study in Canadian Immigration, page 214.