of the writ of habeas corpus; the compensation of the President; the trial of all crimes by jury; the requirement of two witnesses for conviction of treason; attainder of treason not to work corruption of blood or forfeiture after the death of the traitor; the faith and credit to be given to public acts and records of other States; the privileges and immunities of citizenship; the extradition of fugitives from justice; the discharge of fugitives from labor; the support of republican government; the invalidity of any State law contrary to "the law of the land."

§ 599. Many subjects are similarly restricted in the constitutional amendments of which the following are examples: The free exercise of religion; freedom of speech; freedom of the press; the right of the people to assemble and petition the government; the right of the people to keep and bear arms; the right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects; the legality of warrants upon probable cause, supported by oath, &c.; indictments only by a grand jury; only once in jeopardy of life or limb, for the same offence; no one compelled to be a witness, in a criminal case, against himself, nor deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation; the right of trial by jury in suits at common law involving over twenty dollars. All these and some other provisions are in the

nature of a bill of rights, sanctioned by the Constitution, and are, by necessary implication, so many restrictions on all power, wherever lodged. A few only are particularly applied to Congress; but it is not to be supposed that this was intended to be exclusive, or that the people of the United States meant to have their rights exposed to depredations from others, after protecting them against their own government. The acknowledged constitutional rights of the people must be protected by the government, not only against their own wrongdoing, but against any other agency in the land. The government has as much right to put a citizen to the rack in order to compel him "to be a witness against himself," as it has to permit a village magistrate to do the same thing, under the pretended authority of a State law. And so of every other prohibition in the catalogue.

600. These are the disabilities and restrictions imposed on the States, by the terms of the Constitution. They were always in view during the early discussions of the relative rights of State and nation, when it was well understood and recognized, that the Constitution left the States with all the legal rights they then had, except those that were altered by that instrument. It was known that no new powers of government were conferred on the States, and that all its legislative powers were vested in Congress. It was also perfectly and equally

well known to all concerned, that the whole object of the American people, in ordaining and establishing the Constitution, was to constitute a firm national government, adequate to all the exigencies of a government for the United States, "in order to form a more perfect Union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty" to all the people of the United States and their posterity. All this was true, well understood, and plainly and permanently written on parchment. But the future was unseen, and necessarily left out of the account. It could not have been foreseen, that a system of false doctrine and antagonistic practice, leading to, and terminating in, treason, rebellion, and war, would be adopted by a portion of the subordinate States, the result of which might be the total annihilation, or any thing short of it, of all those States.

§ 601. The avowed purposes of the people of the United States, for which the Constitution was established, they had made it the duty of their government to accomplish, by all the means placed at their disposal. These means were, the making and executing of "all laws necessary and proper" for that end. Whatever laws may be properly made by one department, must be lawfully executed by the other departments; and whatsoever the government, or any department or officer thereof, may lawfully do or com

mand for any of those purposes, no man may lawfully undo or counteract. This constitutes the sweeping and all-pervading restriction and disability of every citizen and subject within the Union, the States inclusive. This is the supremacy of the Constitution, and, with the laws and treaties of the United States, forms the paramount"law of the land," binding all officers and judges, States, corporations, and people, "any thing in the constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding."

VIVAT RESPUBLICA.

INDEX.

[Art., §, cl., refer to the Article, Section, and Clause of the Constitution. Am. refers
to the Amendments of the Constitution. Figures alone, without prefix, indicate the
page of the work.]

ACTS, records, and judicial proceed- | Apportionment of representatives and