for their services. This is not a radical innovation; it is simply a return to correct, first principles in government, and there can be no higher duty than to preserve the highest dignity and the highest utility for our public servants, a condition which cannot exist under the rule of irresponsible commissions.

CHAPTER XXV

THE STATE LEGISLATURE

181. Special Limitations on the Legislature

THE prevalent distrust of state legislatures has led to attempts to restrict their opportunity for evil by placing in the constitutions fundamental and detailed limitations on their powers. The general character of these limitations may be gathered by a study of the following provisions from the constitution of New York:

ARTICLE III

§ 11. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and General provisions publish the same, except such parts as may require secrecy. The as to prodoors of each house shall be kept open, except when the public cedure. welfare shall require secrecy. Neither house shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than two days.

§ 12. For any speech or debate in either house of the Legislature, the members shall not be questioned in any other place.

13. Any bill may originate in either house of the Legislature, and all bills passed by one house may be amended by the other.

§ 14. The enacting clause of all bills shall be "The People of the State of New York, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact as follows," and no law shall be enacted except by bill.

§ 15. No bill shall be passed or become a law unless it shall have been printed and upon the desks of the members, in its final form, at least three calendar legislative days prior to its final passage, unless the Governor, or the acting Governor, shall have certified to the necessity of its immediate passage, under his hand and the seal of the State; nor shall any bill be passed or become a law, except by the assent of a majority of the members elected to each branch

Prohibition of special and local bills.

of the Legislature; and upon the last reading of a bill, no amendment thereof shall be allowed, and the question upon its final passage shall be taken immediately thereafter, and the yeas and nays entered on the journal.

§ 16. No private or local bill, which may be passed by the Legislature, shall embrace more than one subject, and that shall be expressed in the title.

§ 17. No act shall be passed which shall provide that any existing law, or any part thereof, shall be made or deemed a part of said act, or which shall enact that any existing law, or part thereof, shall be applicable, except by inserting it in such act.

§ 18. The Legislature shall not pass a private or local bill in any of the following cases:

Changing the names of persons.

Laying out, opening, altering, working or discontinuing roads, highways or alleys, or for draining swamps or other low lands. Locating or changing county seats.

Providing for changes of venue in civil or criminal cases.
Incorporating villages.

Providing for election of members of boards of supervisors. Selecting, drawing, summoning, or impaneling grand or petit jurors.

Regulating the rate of interest on money.

The opening and conducting of elections or designating places of voting.

Creating, increasing or decreasing fees, percentages or allowances of public officers, during the term for which said officers are elected or appointed.

Granting to any corporation, association or individual the right to lay down railroad tracks.

Granting to any private corporation, association or individual any exclusive privilege, immunity or franchise whatever.

Granting to any person, association, firm or corporation, an exemption from taxation on real or personal property.

Providing for building bridges, and chartering companies for

such purposes, except on the Hudson River below Waterford, and on the East River, or over the waters forming a part of the boundaries of the state.

rights.

The legislature shall pass general laws providing for the cases Protection of private enumerated in this section, and for all other cases which in its judgment may be provided for by general laws. But no law shall authorize the construction or operation of a street railroad except upon the condition that the consent of the owners of one-half in value of the property bounded on, and the consent also of the local authorities having the control of, that portion of a street or highway upon which it is proposed to construct or operate such railroad be first obtained, or in case the consent of such property owners cannot be obtained, the Appellate Division of the Supreme Court, in the department in which it is proposed to be constructed, may, upon application, appoint three commissioners who shall determine, after a hearing of all parties interested, whether such railroad ought to be constructed or operated, and their determination, confirmed by the court, may be taken in lieu of the consent of the property owners.

§ 19. The legislature shall neither audit nor allow any private claim or account against the State, but may appropriate money to pay such claims as shall have been audited and allowed according to law.

on power

20. The assent of two-thirds of the members elected to each Restrictions branch of the legislature shall be requisite to every bill appropriat- to appropriing the public moneys or property for local or private purposes.

§ 21. No money shall ever be paid out of the treasury of this State, or any of the funds under its management, except in pursuance of an appropriation by law; nor unless such payment be made within two years next after the passage of such appropriation act; and every such law making a new appropriation, or continuing or reviving an appropriation, shall distinctly specify the sum appropriated, and the object to which it is to be applied; and it shall not be sufficient for such law to refer to any other law to fix such sum.

ate money.

The credit of the state.

Limit on state debt.

22. No provision or enactment shall be embraced in the annua appropriation or supply bill, unless it relates specifically to some particular appropriation in the bill; and any such provision or enactment shall be limited in its operation to such appropriation....

24. Every law which imposes, continues or revives a tax shall distinctly state the tax and the object to which it is to be applied, and it shall not be sufficient to refer to any other law to fix such tax or object.

§ 25. On the final passage, in either house of the Legislature, of any act which imposes, continues or revives a tax, or creates a debt or charge, or makes, continues or revives any appropriation of public or trust money or property, or releases, discharges or commutes any claim or demand of the State, the question shall be taken by yeas and nays, which shall be duly entered upon the journals, and three-fifths of all the members elected to either house shall, in all such cases, be necessary to constitute a quorum therein.

ARTICLE VII

SEC. 1. The credit of the State shall not in any manner be given or loaned to or in aid of any individual, association or corporation. § 2. The State may, to meet casual deficits or failures in revenues, or for expenses not provided for, contract debts; but such debts, direct or contingent, singly or in the aggregate, shall not at any time exceed one million of dollars; and the moneys arising from the loans creating such debts shall be applied to the purpose for which they were obtained, or to repay the debt so contracted, and to no other purpose whatever.

§ 3. In addition to the above limited power to contract debts, the State may contract debts to repel invasion, suppress insurrection, or defend the State in war; but the money arising from the contracting of such debts shall be applied to the purpose for which it was raised, or to repay such debts, and to no other purpose whatever.

§ 4. Except the debts specified in sections two and three of