New York city May 13 and in Chicago June 3. In each city more than 125,000 persons were in line. Congress responded by passing laws for increasing the size and efficiency of the army and the navy, for a larger number of cadets at West Point and Annapolis, and for stronger fortifications on the coasts. Appropriations amounting to nearly $700,000.000 for these and similar purposes were passed. The bill for increasing the navy was especially noteworthy. It provided for the building of ten first class battle ships, six battle cruisers, ten scout cruisers, fifty torpedo boat destroyers, and various sixty-seven submarines ships. It also provided for a government armor plant and additional navy yards, well as for the extension of the yards already in existence. 1917. other as Naturally, from the American point of view, the entry of the United States into the war was the great outstanding feature of 1917. The chances are that history will so record it, for it proved to be the decisive factor in the struggle. Aside from that history will note that the year 1917 marked the departure of America from its traditional policy of poIt will also litical isolation from Europe. note that it was not a voluntary but a forced departure, due to the total disregard shown by Germany for American rights on the seas. Second in importance only to the entrance of America into the war was the revolution in Russia. Some might even rank it first because of its unexpected and sensational features. That the United States would eventually take a hand in the struggle between autocracy and democracy in Europe was more or less of a foregone conclusion in 1916, but that the czar of Russia should be deposed was not foreseen until Nicholas II. had actually lost his crown and was a prisoner. Pro-German Greek King Ousted. In glancing back over the developments in 1917 there are a number of other things that stand out with some distinctness. One is the forced abdication of the pro-German king of Greece, Constantine, and the substitution in his place of his son Alexander as nominal and M. Venizelos as the virtual ruler of the nation. Another is the capture of Jerusalem by the British-an event not of great military importance, perhaps, but of tremendous sentimental and moral significance. The taking of Bagdad and a large portion of Mesopotamia by the British, considered in connection with the success of the Palestine campaign, was also a matter of moment in that it vastly strengthened the position of the allies in the Moslem world-a world in which the Germans were ambitious to rule, and in which before the war they were rapidly obtaining pre-eminence. In December, 1916, Germany and her allies made a peace offer without giving definite terms, but referring in boastful language to their victorious armies. That offer was rejected by the allies in January, 1917, with emphasis. Wilson's Peace Address. President Wilson appeared before the senate on the 22d of that month and made his fanous "peace without victory" address, in which he advocated a world league for peace. His views were received sympathetically in most quarters, though the allies pointed out that no peace based on the condition of things existing before the war could be durable and that as matters stood it would be a virtual victory for the Germanic alliance. This address was the last effort made by the president to bring peace to the world without resorting to armed force. He could see then that America was rapidly being forced into a position where no argument save that of the sword would avail. It was also the last appeal for peace made by any person commanding respectful attention save that is sued by Pope Benedict XV. on Aug. 15, to On July 19 the German reichstag adopted resolutions in favor of peace on the basis of mutual understanding and lasting reconciliation among the nations. The resolutions sounded well, but they were accompanied by expressions indicating that Germany in this war was the victim of aggression and that it approved the acts of the government. They referred to the "men who are defending the fatherland." to the necessity of assuring the freedom of the seas and to the impossibility of conquering a united German nation. The allies, which with nearly all neutral nations were convinced that the German government was the real aggressor and that the freedom of the seas had never been restricted except by Germany herself, were not in a mood to accept this as figured largely in German internal politics, but a serious move toward peace. The resolutions elsewhere they were without effect. There were a number of peace conferences in Stockholm, but as the parties concerned were socialists of an extreme type and others holding views usually classed as anarchistic no serious attention was paid to them. The "pacifists" in the allied and neutral countries were more or less active, but received little encouragement. Their arguments did not appeal to thinking or patriotic people. Within a week after President Wilson's "peace without victory" speech before the senate the German government_replied to it by announcing that beginning on Feb. 1 it would carry on unrestricted submarine warfare in certain extensive zones around the British isles, France and Italy. It would, however, graciously permit the United States to use a narrow lane to Falmouth with one sailing a week, provided the American ships were painted red and white and carried various sorts of distinguishing marks. Bernstorff Dismissed. This program was, of course, in direct violation of all the promises made by Germany to the United States and President Wilson acted promptly. On Feb. 3 at a joint session of the house and senate he announced that Ambassador Bernstorff had been given his passports and that all diplomatic relations with the Teuton empire had been severed. Mr. Wilson asked the co-operation of other neutral nations in ending the submarine depredations, but for various reasons none of them at that time could see their way clear to do so. United States senate approved the action of the president in breaking with Germany by a vote of 78 to 5. The five voting in the negative were Kirby, Vardaman, Gronna. Works and LaFollette. The On Feb. 26 the president appeared before congress and asked for formal permission to arm American merchantmen SO that they could protect themselves from attacks by submarines. This permission was promptly granted by the house, which appropriated $100.000.000 for the arming and insuring of American merchant ships. In the senate, however, a similar measure was defeated by means of a filibuster led by Robert M. LaFollette of Wisconsin. This was made possible by the rules of the senate, which did not provide for cloture. Congress expired by limitation March 4, but the senate was called into extra session and within four days it adopted a cloture rule acceptable to the president. It may be said at this point that Senator La Follette's antiwar activities and especially some of his utterances in public speeches outside the senate led to a demand for his expulsion from that body. An investigation was ordered, but no action was ever taken. Deeming himself authorized by existing law to arm merchantmen defensively, President Wilson gave formal notice March 12 that American ships traversing the barred areas of the seas would carry armed guards for the protection of the vessels and the lives of the persons on board. Ruthless "U" Boat War On. In the meantime the German submarine commanders were doing their best to carry out the policy of sinking all ships found in the barred zones without warning and without taking any steps to insure the safety of crews or passengers. On March 18 it became known that the American steamers City of Memphis, Vigilancia and Illinois had been sunk in this manner and that at least fifteen lives had been lost. It was felt that action could no longer be delayed and a special session of congress was called for April 2. The national lawmakers assembled on that day and in the evening President Wilson delivered a message asking that war be declared against Germany. In this message, which has become historic, he said that armed neutrality had proved to be impracticable and that in the end it would draw the country into the war without its having the status of a belligerent. With a profound sense of the solemn and even tragical character of the step I am tak ing, he said, and of the grave responsibility which it involves, but in unhesitating obedience to what I deem my constitutional duty, I advise that the congress declare the recent course of the imperial German government to be in fact nothing less than war against the government and people of the United States; that it formally accept the status of belligerent which has thus been thrust upon it and that it take immediate steps not only to put the country in a more thorough state of defense, but also to exert all its power and cmploy all its resources to bring the government of the German empire to terms and end the war.' tion was taken. This was received with especial favor by Italy, which had been urging the United States for some time to take the step. War to Victory, U. S. Slogan. Once having determined its course, the United States bent all its energies toward prosecuting the war to a successful conclusion. Its first step was to increase its armed strength by the creation of a new national army through the selective draft system and by securing as many volunteers as possible for the national guard, the marine corps and the navy. The enlistments were numerous, but it was soon seen that without the selective draft satisfactory results would not have been achieved. To provide for officers for the new army, which was capable of almost indefinite expansion, training camps were established in various parts of the country. The course was about three months and as two series of these training schools were held thousands of promising officers were turned out. Men between the ages of 21 and 30 inclusive registered June 5 under the act of May 18 providing for the temporary increase of the military establishment of the United States. The total number thus inscribed was 9,683,445. The quota of men to be supplied by each state and territory was determined according to its population. The total number to be summoned on the first call was fixed at 687,000. The official drawing of numbers took place in Washington July 20. The men whose numbers brought them within those subject to the first call were then summoned, examined and either accepted or rejected. Training a Great Army. In the meantime sixteen great cantonments had been constructed at convenient points in the country and on Sept. 5 the first contingents of the new troops were sent to them to begin training. Soon thereafter half a million men or more were in these camps and in spite of some drawbacks, such as lack of other sufficient guns and equipment, rapid progress was made in making soldiers out of them. Only a few companies of men. having special technical qualifications were sent from the national army to join the Amer Congress Votes War April 6. Congress was overwhelmingly in favor of the course advised by the president and on April 6 a joint resolution was adopted formally declaring the existence of a state of war be-ican expeditionary force in France in 1917, tween the United States of America and the imperial German government. Only six senaters and fifty representatives voted in the negative. After taking this momentous step congress, urged by the president, passed measures providing for the immediate creation of a national army and the increase to war strength of the national guard, the marine corps and the navy. It passed laws against espionage, trading with the enemy and the unlawful manufacture and use of explosives in time of war. It provided for the insurance of soldiers and sailors, for priority of shipments, for the seizure and use of enemy ships in American har bors, for conserving and controlling the food and fuel supply of the country, for stimulating agriculture, for increasing the signal corps of the army, especially in the matter of aviaGreat activity was also shown in building tion, for extending additional credit to foreign up the aviation service of the country. Congovernments. for issuing bonds and for progress made liberal provision for the manufacviding additional revenues for war expenses by increasing old and creating new taxes. War Budget Is $21,390,730,940. Between April 2, the day when the extra session began, and Oct. 6, the day it adjourned, the 65th congress passed all these measures and others of less importance. Altogether it appropriated or authorized the expenditure of $19.321.225.208.41. Including the amount appropriated at the second session of the 64th congress the total reached the enormous sum of $21,390.730.940.46. Most of the acts of the new congress were accepted with approval by the people of the country as a whole, though objection was made to certain features of the taxing policy, which were deemed by many to be unfair and confiscatory. At the regular session of congress beginning Dec. 3 President, Wilson asked for a declaration of war on Austria-Hungary, and this ac Mobilization camps were established for the national guard in the south, and there, with the exception of those sent to France, they underwent intensive training. The guardsmen had much to do early in the spring and sumtunnels and other points where German plotmer in the way of guarding bridges, canals, ters could work mischief. They did excellent work and were highly commended by the authorities. The naval training stations and the regular army mobilization camps were also the scene of great and continued activity. The middle west was an especially fruitful field in producing candidates for the navy and the marine corps. The mobilization of the national guard by President Wilson was proclaimed July 9. ture of airplanes and the training of aviators. The invention of the Liberty motor was hailed as a distinct triumph in the field of aviation. This motor, or one similar to it. was adapted for use in the trucks with which the army was supplied. Many college and university men entered the aviation service. Hoover as Food Administrator. But increasing the military strength of the country was only one step, though a most important one. The conservation of the counespecially its food. try's material resources, and fuel, and their proper distribution, was another step. Congress supplied the needed legislation and President Wilson provided the administrative machinery. He appointed Herbert C. Hoover as food administrator, Aug. 19 and on Aug. 23 Dr. Harry A. Garfield was anpointed fuel administrator. The food admin istration was throughout the year extremely active in impressing upon the people the necessity of economy in the preparation and use of foods. To save wheat and meat for the allies wheatless and meatless days were established in homes, hotels and restaurants, with excellent results. The whole country was placarded with cards and posters proclaiming the value of food economy as a factor in winning the war. Through the council of national defense, its advisory commission and its numerous committees an immense amount of work was done in classifying and making available the country's resources for defense and war. It was especially active in providing and standardizing munitions, in the purchase of army supplies, in stimulating inventions and research and in co-ordinating the work of the states and departments. It enlisted women in the cause of national defense, and in every way promoted the objects for which it was created. Some of the leading business and professional men of the country devoted all their time and energy, without cost to the government, to the national cause. Creation of the Shipping Board. To counteract the ravages of the submarine warfare the United States undertook to provide enough merchant tonnage to supply the transportation needs of the allies as well as of the United States. This was to be accomplished through the agency of a shipping board created by the act of Sept. 7, 1916. Maj.-Gen. George W. Goethals, the builder of the Panama canal, was made manager of the construction department and William Denman chairman of the board. Unfortunately irreconcilable differences of opinion arose between them as to the policy of building steel or wooden ships, and the result was that in July President Wilson accepted the resignations of both men. Edward N. Hurley became chairman, Charles Piez manager of the Emergency Fleet corporation and Edward F. Carry the director of the department of operations. Issues of Liberty Bonds. To meet in part the tremendous expense involved in creating an adequate army and navy, in carrying on the war and in making loans to the allies the secretary of the treasury issued bonds, the first series bearing interest at the rate of 3% per cent and the second series 4 per cent. The loans were known as liberty loans" and the bonds as "liberty bonds." The first bonds were offered May 2 and the second series Oct. 1. The allotments were $2,000,000,000 and $3,000,000,000, respectively. The subscriptions for the 31⁄2 per cent bonds amounted to $3.035,226,850 and those for the 4 per cent bonds to $4,617,532,800. The secretary of the treasury, however, accepted only 50 per cent of the oversubscription on 4 per cents, bringing the total to $3.808.766.150. Besides being called upon for subscriptions to bonds the people of the country were asked to contribute to the American Red Cross, the Young Men's Christian association, the Knights of Columbus, the Salvation Army and various other agencies doing relief work in Europe and America or providing comforts for the soldiers at the training camps and in the field in France. Το the Red Cross more than $100.000.000 was given in May and June and additional millions in December. In November $35,000,000 was raised in a week for the Y. M. C. A. fund. All the agencies named were active. The Red Cross, after creation by President Wilson of a war council under the was chairmanship of Henry P. Davison. especially active in France, Italy and Russia and brought relief to unnumbered thousands. Work of the Navy. When America entered the war the United States navy became active. Its operations were veiled in more or less secrecy, but it was known that it relieved the other allies of patrolling the greater part of the seas outside the submarine area and that within that area it had a fleet of destroyers under command of Vice-Admiral William S. Sims chasing submarines-and destroying some of them-and acting as convoys to troopships and merchantmen. In this duty it met with some losses. The destroyer Cassin was torpedoed Oct. 16, one man being killed and five wounded, but was not sunk. The patrol boat Alcedo was sunk Nov. 6 with the loss of twenty-one lives. The destroyer Jacob Jones was torpedoed and sunk Dec. 6, with a loss of sixty-four lives. The destroyer Chauncey was sunk in a collision Nov. 19 and a score of men were drowned. The transport Antilles was sunk Oct. 17 when it was homeward bound, and seventy lives were lost. The transport Finland was torpedoed Oct. 28, but not sunk, though nine lives were lost, due to a panic on board the ship. The Expeditionary Force. It was announced May 14 that an expeditionary force of about one division of regulars under command of Maj.-Gen. John J. Pershing would be sent to France. Gen. Pershing had become well known in connection with the expedition to Mexico and the choice was a popular one. He arrived in England June 8 and in France June 13. The first contingent of troops reached France June 27 and the second contingent a little later. It afterward became known that the departure of the troops had been communicated to Germany and submarines were lying in wait for the transports. Only the vigilance of the American destroyers convoying the transports prevented the sinking of one or more of them with heavy loss of life. The first arrivals in France were at once given intensive training in the methods of modern warfare, their teachers being veteran French officers and troops. Their numbers were augmented from time to time until all branches of the service were represented. The commander of the American forces in France was raised to the full rank of general by act of congress. First American Army Casualties. To give the troops actual experience in trench fighting a number of them, including artillery and infantry, were sent into a part of the line held by the French. Here the first casualties occurred. On Nov. 3 a German raiding party attacked a trench occupied by the Americans, killing three. wounding five and taken eleven prisoners. A number of other men were killed or wounded by shell fire. What casualties the Germans suffered was not learned, as they were able to carry off their dead and wounded. While American sailors and soldiers were facing the enemy on sea and on land the people at home were menaced in various ways by German plotters. Some of these were alien enemies and others citizens of the United States of German birth or descent. To recount all the acts of violence committed and attempted would require much more space than is here available. They were mainly in the direction of destroying munition plants, bridges, food depots, ships and everything of military value. Hundreds of lives were lost through explosions undoubtedly caused by persons acting for Germany either officially or of their own accord. Even Ambassador Bernstorff himself was concerned in some of these plots involving bribery and violence. Other plots took the form of pacifist propaganda. lies about the liberty bonds and the Cross work, strikes and general obstruction to the government's war work. In this campaign the German agents were assisted by the maiority of the socialists and by the notorious Industrial Workers of the World. many of whose leaders were arrested Sept. 5 in various parts of the United States. Zimmermann and Luxburg. Red In connection with the underground work of the German government the most sensational disclosures were made by the state department. Everything made public was capable of docu mentary proof and the enemies of the United States soon learned that it was inadvisable to deny anything coming from this source. The revelation Feb. 28 of the attempt by the German foreign secretary. Dr. Alfred Zimmermann, to cause Mexico and Japan to make war on the United States helped materially to bring about the break in the relations between this country and Germany. Another revelation which aroused worldwide interest was the publication of the famous Luxburg cables from Buenos Aires to the Berlin, foreign office advising that Argentine ships be sunk without trace ("spurlos versenkt") and speaking of the acting minister of foreign affairs in the republic as a "notorious ass and Anglophile." Because of plottings similar to those recounted. but chiefly because of the feeling of animosity aroused by Germany's continued violation of international law and the laws of humanity through her submarine campaign, the following nations in 1917 followed the example of the United States in formally declaring war on Germany: Cuba. Panama, Brazil, Greece, Siam, Liberia and China. In addition the following severed diplomatic relations with Germany: Bolivia, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Haiti, Costa Rica, Peru and Uruguay. Thus at the end of the year nineteen countries with a combined population of nearly 1,300.000.000 were rayed against Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria, with a population of a little more than 142,000,000. The Russian Revolution ar With regard to the upheaval in Russia the facts are briefly these: The duma was dissolved by the czar March 11, but on the fol lowing day it declared that the government had been overthrown and that a new demo. cratic government was in process of forma tion. In the town of Pskoff on March 15 Czar Nicholas was forced to abdicate and was imprisoned in his palace at Tsarskoe-Selo. Later he was sent to Tobolsk. The new government at first was in the hands of such well known men as Michael V. Rodzianko. Prince George E. Lvoff and Prof. Paul N. Milyoukov. It soon developed, however that the more radical elements of the revolutionists were in control of the army and the working classes in the cities and that these were determined to quit the war and make peace according to their formula of "no annexations and no indemnities." Because the new government did not stick close enough to this formula,, but preferred to keep faith with the allies by refusing to make a separate peace, it was compelled in May to give way to a new ministry, in which Alexander Kerensky, a socialist, was the ruling spirit. Recognizing the difficulties the Russian democracy had to deal with, the United States sent several important missions to Petrograd to give such assistance as might be deemed possible. One of a political nature was headed by Former Senator Elihu Root; another was an engineering commission led by John F. Stevens and a third was a Red Cross mission led by Dr. Frank Billings of Chicago. as stituent assembly was elected Nov. 24-26, but the bolsheviki, fearing that they could not control it, threatened forcibly to prevent its holding a session. Constantine Deposed. Constantine I., king of Greece, was deposed by the protecting powers-France, Great Britain and Russia-June 12 and his place on the throne was given to his second son, Prince Alexander. The provisional government led by Eleutherios Venizelos was merged with the new administration in Athens and war was formally declared on the Teutonic powers and their allies. Constantine, it was shown, had contemplated attacking the allies in Macedonia from the rear and it was apparent that his removal from authority came none too soon. Many Submarines Sunk. time In their ruthless submarine warfare the Germans had less success than had been predicted by them. The sinkings of merchant vessels were serious enough and for a constituted a menace to the food and other importations of Britain, but after the United States entered the war and sent its fleet of destroyers and submarine chasers across the Atlantic for patrol work the danger gradually lessened. Many submarines were sunk in the course of the year and their operations gradually restricted until it was felt that there was no longer any danger that they would become a decisive factor in the war. were Naturally the British were the heaviest losers in this species of warfare, but other nations suffered severely, especially seafaring Norway, which thus lost about one-third of her vessels and some 700 sailors murdered. Some of the actions of the German submarines and raiders were so atrocious as to arouse the resentment of the nation to the verge of war even in the face of tremendous odds. No naval battles of importance were fought in 1917. All the engagements were between destroyers and other light craft. Germany continued to send air raiders across to Britain to bombard the coast towns and interior cities, including London. No appreciable military losses were caused, but many innocent lives were taken. The announced purpose of the British to retaliate in kind was generally approved, it being felt that Germany must be given a dose of her own medicine. Events on the Fighting Fronts. On the fighting fronts in Europe, Asia and Africa the developments in the course of the year were numerous and important. Beginning with Africa, it may be noted that the last vestige of German authority on that continent was extinguished by the forces under Gen. Vandeventer, when on Dec. 1 they had cleared East Africa of the enemy. Germany at the present moment has not a single colony left in the world. In Mesopotamia the British under Gen. Frederick Stanley Maude recaptured Kut-elAmara toward the end of February and on March 11 entered the city of Bagdad, which had been the goal of Gen. Townshend's ill fated expedition the previous year. They drove the Turks far beyond that city and joined hands with the Russians who had come down through Persia. the Gen. Maude died Nov. On July 20 Kerensky became premier and in spite of increasing insubordination in the army continued in the saddle for some weeks. One of the incidents of his career head of the state was the proclamation on Sept. 14 of Russia as a republic. Kerensky, however, was not radical enough for the extremists and on Nov. 7 he was deposed by a counter-revolution led by Leon Trotzky and Nikolai Lenin. Later Lenin was made premier and Trotzky foreign minister and they promptly made overtures to Germany for an armistice. This was granted and peace negotions were under way in December. The country was in a state of anarchy, with Finland, the Ukraine, Siberia and other districts proclaiming their independence and with the Cossacks fighting the bolsheviki, as the ruling extremists called themselves. A con 18. Capture of Jerusalem. British forces from Egypt carried on a successful campaign against the Turks and Germans in Palestine. In January they routed the enemy troops at Rafa and on March 26 inflicted a severe defeat on them in the vicinity of Gaza. Under the able leadership of Gen. E. H. Allenby the British pressed on toward the north, taking Beersheba Oct. 31, Gaza Nov. 7. Jaffa Nov. 17 and Jerusalem Dec. 11. On Christmas day it was announced that Bethlehem had also been taken by the British. This successful campaign in Palestine appealed strongly to the entire Christian world. Austrian Invasion of Italy. On the Italian front there were two swift changes in the course of the year. In May and again in August Gen. Cadorna inflicted severe defeats on the Austrians on the Carso and Bainsizza plateaus. Then in October heavy Austrian and German forces under the leadership of Field Marshal von Mackensen attacked the northern part of the Isonzo line and, aided by the treacherous weakening of certain Italian troops at Caporetto, drove Gen. Cadorna's forces first to the line of the Tagliamento and then to the line of the Piave. Here the Italians made a stand and were able to hold back the enemy in the face of the most furious attacks, especially in the mountainous region toward the northwest, where the Austrian forces made desperate efforts to force their way down to the plains and turn the left flank of the Italian line. The Italians lost heavily in men and materiel during the retreat, but the forces were reorganized and re-enforced by French and British infantry and artillery. On the east front the Russians made their last advance July 1 when in eastern Galicia they captured Brezezany, Halicz and other places with some 30,000 prisoners. After that the Russian armies refused to obey their commanders and it was an easy matter for the Germans to recover the lost ground and advance still farther. In the early part of September the Germans crossed the Dvina river and Riga soon fell into their hands, together with certain islands in the Baltic. Then came the truce and the peace negotiations. In Macedonia little was accomplished by the allies. Gen. Sarrail, the commander in chief, was recalled in December. was Fierce Struggles on West Front. Fierce and bloody fighting continued on the western front throughout the greater part of the year. The advantage in the main with the British and the French, who maintained the initiative and delivered many telling blows. The Germans were not able to do much in the way of retaliation, though they won a measure of success against the British at the extreme northern end of the line in Belgium and on Nov. 30 at Cambrai. On the other hand the British won notable victories in the vicinity of Lens, Arras and along the Ypres-Menin road. One of the notable features of the fighting was the capture by Canadian troops of Vimy ridge in April. Gen. Sir Julian Byng won a brilliant victory by a surprise attack in the Cambrai sector Nov. 20-22. He took a considerable area of fortified territory and about 10,000 prisoners, but the effect of the triumph was offset to some extent by the successful counterattack made by the Germans a few days later. The French also carried out a number of successful offensives. On April 16 they took the German first and second lines on a twenty-five mile front in the Soissons-Reims sector and captured 20,000 Germans, together with about seventy-five heavy guns. On May 4 they captured Craonne and the adjacent territory. They fought successfully along the Chemin des Dames, on the Californie plateau, at Cerny and many other places. All the efforts of the German crown prince to advance in the Verdun sector proved costly failures. On. Oct. 23 the French smashed through the German lines north of the Aisne to a depth of more than two miles, taking the strongholds of Allemant, Vaudesson, Malmaison fort and Chavignon. In the air the year was one of increased activity. Numberless raids were made on all the fronts and it became increasingly apparent that to be successful modern armies must be supplemented by large aerial forces. Foreign Missions to America. Great Britain, France, Italy, Belgium, Russia, Japan, Roumania, Serbia and other countries sent some of their distinguished men to the United States on military and political missions. Some of them after completing their work in Washington made extended tours through the country. Great Britain sent Arthur James Balfour, its foreign minister, and Lord Cunliffe, governor of the Bank of England. France was represented by Rene Viviani, minister of justice, and Gen. Joffre. Italy had as the head of its mission Prince military adviser of the French government. Russia sent Ferdinando di Savoia of Udine. Boris A. Bakhmetieff, Belgium Baron Ludovic Moncheur, Roumania Count Vassile Stoica, Norway Dr. Fridtjof Nansen and Japan Baron Ishii. Some of the leaders of these missions gave addresses before the houses of congress and laid wreaths on the tomb of Washington at Mount Vernon. The parleys were held at Brest-Litovsk, beginning Dec. 22, 1917, and ended March 3. 1918, when the Russian delegation signed a peace treaty, the terms of which were essentially in violation of all they had contended for and virtually dispossessed Russia of some of her richest provinces. The bolshevik leaders made a curious attempt to end the war without any formal peace pact, but they were quickly brought to their senses when the German army resumed operations and captured Dvinsk, Lutsk and other cities and even threatened Petrograd to such an extent that it was abandoned as the seat of government in favor of Moscow, where the central soviet. or executive body of the soldiers, peasants and workmen, have since had their headquarters. The bolsheviki were greatly chagrined at the outcome of the peace negotiations, but at a congress of soviets held in Moscow March 14-16 last the terms of the peace imposed by the Germans were finally ratified. President Wilson sent to this gathering a message of sympathy because of the check suffered by Russia in her struggle for freedom. To this message the soviet returned a somewhat cool expression of appreciation. Since the peace treaty was signed Russia Ukraine, one of the richest grain districts of has been in a most deplorable. state. The the former empire, was the first to break away, declaring its independence and entering into a separate peace treaty with the central powers. Finland became the scene of civil war between the "red guards" representing the Russian bolshevik government and the "white organized by the Finlanders with the guards,' help of Germany. In the end the white guards triumphed and a Finnish government absolutely under the control of Germany was established in Helsingfors. The landed proprietors sent agents to Berlin and entered into a secret agreement by which the country was to be turned into a kingdom with a German prince on the throne. Germany's collapse in November put an end to this scheme as well as many others. |