The Trusts which dominate the business world of to-day are the legitimate descendants of the old English monopolies.

Definition. The old time monopolies were grants by the crown securing to one or more persons an exclusive right to carry on some particular branch of trade or manufacture, while the modern trusts are organizations formed by the combination of competing firms, which, independently of any grant of a sovereign or State, exert the right and power of controlling the entire business of the particular branch of trade or manufacture in which they are engaged.

History. In the sixteenth century the people of England complained of the extortions of the monopolies which had been

granted by the crown and the whole system was attacked in Parliament in 1597. No restraining law was passed, because of the personal solicitation of the queen, but in 1601 Parliament took up the subject and a list of the most objectionable monopolies was read in the House of Commons. One member of that body caused a sensation at the time by asking, "Is not bread among the number?"

In 1623 the so-called statute of monopolies was passed, which provided that all monopolies should be illegal, except such as might be granted by Parliament, the only exceptions being the control of new manufactures and inventions. For a time this law put an end to the formation of monopolies, which have now become common under the name of "trusts" in nearly every civilized country of the world.

English Trusts.-In England, despite the industrial energy of the country and its extensive commerce, the trust system has not made the advance it has in some other countries in Europe or in America.

German Trusts.-There are many trusts in Germany. In such industries as brick, stone, plaster of paris, glue, mortar and the like there are about fifty trusts of which a recent writer says: "Of these trusts-in the widest sense of the word-it may be said that by hindering unlimited underbidding they have proved an actual blessing to the trades concerned, without becoming a menace to the public welfare." The same writer says: "The activity and extension of trusts in Germany has not yet led to serious apprehensions or open hatred on the part of large portions of the population, as now appears to exist in the United States. Although aiming primarily at the establishment of better prices, German trusts cannot be accused of the exploitation of the public at large or of the working classes. As regards the establishment of prices, also, the trusts have hitherto displayed a wise moderation."

Russian Trusts.-In Russia, while the courts do not recognize the formation of trusts as legal, strong industrial organizations control many of the commodities. Iron, brandy, sugar, petroleum and a vast number of other products are in the hands of monopolies which oppress the people. Not only is no resistance offered them by the government, but many of them have been organized under the protection and with the assi ance of the governinent.

French Trusts.-Perhaps in no country in Europe has the trust system assumed the proportions it has acquired in France. The iron trade, the chemical industries, the bottle-glass, sugar refining, zinc and many other important lines of industry are controlled by trusts, and have been so for many years.

American Trusts.-In the United States trusts are of comparatively recent origin, but have increased with such rapidity that to-day they outnumber those of all other countries of the world combined. In Moody's Manual of Corporation Securities it is stated that there are in this country about 850 trusts or great industriai combinations, with a total capital of $9,000,000,000, and that the railroad consolidations would increase this to $15,000,000,000 of outstanding capital.

Besides these gigantic industrial trusts there are innumerable price-fixing and profit-sharing pools in nearly every industry of the country.

Natural Monopolies, such as railroads, street railways, gas, electric light, and water companies, are not classed as trusts, because they are not composed of naturally competing concerns. Consolidations and price and rate-fixing agreements in these industries exist in nearly every city in the country.

Stringent anti-trust acts have been adopted by the general government and most of the States, but owing to the restrictions these acts have experienced at the hands of jurists, most of them have practically become dead letters. The American trusts having the largest capitals are as follows:

PARLIAMENTARY RULES AND USAGES

Trace each motion to its respective references and you master at a glance the intricacies of parliamentary usages, comprising some three hundred points of order.

Forms in which questions may be put...
Questions of precedence of questions.
Motion to withdraw a motion. ..

To take up a question out of its proper order
Motion to take from the table....

Motion to suspend the rules......

.8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. .1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. ....a. e. g. i. m. n. p. .a. e. g. i. 1. n. p.

.a. e. g. k. 1. n. b.

.c. e. h. j. m. n. p.

To substitute in the nature of an amendment
Motion to make subject a special order.

.c. e. h. i. m. n. p. .c. e. h. i. 1. n. p.

INDEPENDENCE HALL, 1776.

(lo the room to the left, on entering the hall. the Declaration of Independence was signed.)

Question whether subject shall be discussed
Motion that committee do not rise....
Motion to refer a question..

Motion to reconsider an undebatable question

Motion to reconsider a debatable question.

Reading papers

Questions of privilege.

Questions touching priority of business
Motion for previous question
Motion to postpone indefinitely.
Motion to postpone to a definite time
Motion for the orders of the day..
Objection to consideration of question.
Motion to limit debate on question.
Motion to lay on the table.

.a. e. g. i. 1. o. q. ....a. e. g. j. m. n. p. ....c. f. h. j. m. n. p. ...a. e. g. j. m. n. r. .c. f. g. j. m. n. p. .a. e. g. i. m. n. p. .c. e. h. i. m. n. p.

.a. e. h. i. m. n. p. .a. e. g. i. 1. n. p. .c. f. g. i. m. n. p.

e. h. i. m. n. p. .a. e. g. i. m. o. q. .a. e. g. i. 1. o. q. .a. e. h. i. 1. n. p. ....a. e. g. k. m. n. p

Leave to continue speaking after indecorum..
Motion to extend limits of debate on question.
Motion to commit.

Motion to close debate on question.

Call to order.....

Motion to appeal from Speaker's decision generally
Motion to appeal from Speaker's decision re in decorum
Motion to amend the rules

Motion to amend an amendment

Motion to amend.

Motion to determine time to which to adjourn.
Motion to adjourn...

.a. e. g. i. m. n. p. .a. e. h. i. m. n. p.

.c. f. h. m. n. p. .a. e. h. i. 1. n. p .a. e. g. i. m. o. q.

......c. e. g. i. m. n. q. ....a. e. h. i. m. n. q. .....c. e. h. 1. 1. n. p. ...c. e. g. i. m. n. p. .c. e. h. i. m. n. p. .b. c. h. i. m. n. p. .a. e. g. j. m. n. p.

a. Question undebatable; sometimes remarks tacitly allowed.
b. Undebatable if another question is before the assembly.
c. Debatable question.

d. Limited debate only on propriety of postponement.

e. Does not allow reference to main question.

f. Opens the main question to debate.

k. An affirmative vote on this question cannot be reconsidered. Requires two-third vote, unless special rules have been enacted.

1.

m. Simple majority suffices to determine the question.

n. Motion must be seconded.

o. Does not require to be seconded.

p. Not in order when another has the floor.

q. Always in order, though another may have the floor.