47. Define mood. 48. How many moods are there? 49. How is the indicative mood used? the potential? the subjunctive? the imperative? 50. What is tense? 51. Enumerate the six tenses. 52. Name the tenses of the indicative mood. 73. Into what three classes are lim- 74. Name the articles. 77. What is a cardinal numeral ? 53. Name the tenses of the poten- 80. How are the comparative and tial mood. superlative degrees formed? 54. Name the tenses of the subjunc- 81. Explain better; worse. tive mood. 82. Define adverb. 55. How many tenses has the im- 83. Give the origin of when; where; perative mood? 56. What are the two infinitives? 57. What are the two gerunds? there? why. 84. How are adverbs compared ? 85. Define preposition. 86. Name the simple prepositions. 87. What does a preposition govern? 59. Define number and person in 88. Define conjunction. verbs. 89. How are conjunctions classified? 60. What is the origin of ed in the 90. Define co-ordinate conjunction; past tense? 61. What is conjugation? 62. How many conjugations are there? subordinate conjunction. 91. Give three co-ordinate and two subordinate conjunctions. 92. Define interjection. 63. Define a regular verb; an ir- 93. Enumerate the nine uses of the regular verb. noun. 64. What are the principal parts 94. Which eight uses of the pronoun are the same as those of the noun ? of a verb ? Of walk? 65. Give a synopsis of walk in 2d pers. sing.; in 3d pers. pl. 66. Define defective verb; unipersonal; redundant. 67. What are the chief auxiliaries? 68. Define progressive form; emphatic, interrogative. 69. What is the origin of shall? 70. Define adjective. 71. How are adjectives classified? 72. What is a limiting adjective? 95. State the two uses of the ad jective. 96. State the difference of office between a finite verb and a verbal. 97. What are the three uses of the 98. What use has the adverb? SECTION II. SYNTAX. DEFINITIONS. 195. Syntax is that division of grammar which treats of the relations of words in sentences. 196. Grammatical Relations.-There are seven principal relations in which words may stand in a sentence :— I. The subjective relation,—of subject to predicate. For the definition of subject, see § 209; of predicate, see § 210. II. The predicative relation,-of predicate to subject. III. The attributive relation,-of adjunct to the word modified. An attributive word, or adjunct (see § 211), is a word used with a noun or pronoun to modify its meaning. It may be (1) an adjective or a participle; (2) a noun possessive; (3) a noun appositive. IV. The complementary relation,—of complement to incomplete verb. V. The adverbial relation,-of adverb to verb, etc. VI. The representative relation,-of pronoun to the noun or pronoun represented. VII. The connective relation,-of preposition or conjunction to the words connected. *From Greek syn, together, and taxis, arrangement. To these may be added VIII. The absolute and independent constructions, in which words have no grammatical relation to the other parts of the sentence. 197. Constructions. In the syntax of words two forms of construction are found-regular constructions and irregular constructions. 198. Regular constructions are those that follow the general rules for the combination of words in sentences. They are expressed in the Rules of Syntax (see page 140). 199. An irregular or peculiar construction, sometimes called an idiom, is one that departs from the ordinary form or meaning of words, or from the usual manner of combining words: as, "How do you do?" "This heart of mine." The irregularity that constitutes a particular turn of expression an idiom is due to the operation of several laws of language, among which the most important are: Law I. Desire of brevity. Law II. Extension of a construction beyond its original scope. NOTE.-The operation of these important principles will best be shown in connection with the idiomatic forms under the several rules of syntax. 200. Ellipsis is the omission of a word or of words necessary to complete the grammatical structure of the sentence: thus 1. Whose is this image and superscription? They say unto Him, Cæsar's [image and superscription].-English Bible. 2. Hadst thou the same free will and power to stand? Thou hadst [the same free will and power to stand].-Milton. 201. Pleonasm is the use of superfluous words: thus— 1. The world it is empty, the heart will die.—Coleridge. 2. Yon silver beams, Sleep they less sweetly on the cottage-thatch Than on the dome of kings?-Shelley. NOTE ON SYNTAX AND ANALYSIS. I. What is called analysis (i. e., sentential analysis) is a kind of general syntax, being equally applicable to all languages. Syntax treats of the grammatical relations of the parts of speech; analysis, of the logical relations of the constituent elements of a sentence; that is, of their relations in the expression of thought. Taken together they constitute that branch of language-study which may be termed the Doctrine of the Sentence. The difference between the two, in the manner of considering a sentence, may be seen from the following example: "Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight." SYNTAX. "Now" is an adverb, and modifies the verb "fades." ANALYSIS. "Now fades the glimmering," etc., is a simple sentence. The grammatical subject is "landscape.' The grammatical subject is modified by the adjective elements "the" "Fades" is a regular intransitive verb, indicative mood, present tense, third person, singular, to agree with the noun "landscape." "The" is the definite article, and and "glimmering," thus forming the limits "landscape." logical subject "the glimmering landscape." "Glimmering" is a qualifying adjective, and modifies "landscape." 66 'Landscape" is a common noun, of the singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case, subject of" fades." "On" is a preposition, and connects "sight" with "fades." "The" (as before). "Sight" is a common noun, of the singular number, neuter gender, and objective case, depending on the preposition "on." The grammatical predicate is "fades." The grammatical predicate is modified by the adverb "now," and by the adverbial phrase "on the sight," thus forming the logical predicate, "now fades on the sight." II. Syntax treats only of the grammatical construction of sentences, and is limited to a single aim—namely, to secure by obedience to the rules governing the grammatical relations of words, correctness in the formation of sentences. All else—as beauty, strength, etc.-is beyond the scope of grammar, and pertains to rhetoric. RULES OF SYNTAX. 1. Subjective Relation. Rule I. The subject of a verb is in the nominative case. 2. Predicative Relation. Rule II.-A verb agrees with its subject in person and number. Rule III. 3. Attributive Relation. Adjectives and participles modify nouns or pronouns. -- Rule IV. A noun modifying another noun sig nifying a different thing is in the possessive case. Rule V. A noun or pronoun used to explain another noun or pronoun is put by apposition in the same case. 4. Complementary Relation. Rule VI. The object of a transitive verb is in the objective case. Rule VII.-A noun or pronoun used as the complement of an intransitive or a passive verb is in the nominative case. |