3. State to which of the following words the three tests of the noun apply (and hence which are nouns): hero, heroic, we, man, truly, who. 4. Give the three principal divisions of nouns, and illustrate each class by an example in a sentence.

5. Write in your own language the chief distinction between a proper noun and a common noun, and apply the explanation to the nouns river and Amazon.

6. Give three examples of an abstract noun.

three adjectives.

Form three from any

7. To which class of nouns do the words "seeing" and "believing” in the sentence "Seeing is believing" belong?

8. The plural of nouns is usually formed by adding s or es to the singular. Explain the following plurals which are otherwise formed: oxen,* feet, mice, children,* strata.

9. Write the plurals of the following words: cow, knife, wife, dwarf, staff, ox, die, house, wealth, phenomenon, canto, lily, donkey, stomach, sonin-law, brigadier-general.

10. In the following stanzas classify the nouns :

Can storied urn or animated bust

Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath?
Can Honor's voice provoke the silent dust,

Or Flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of Death?

Some village, Hampden, that with dauntless breast
The little tyrant of his fields withstood,

Some mute inglorious Milton here may rest,

Some Cromwell, guiltless of his country's blood.

II.

1. State the origin of the plural suffix 8, and illustrate.t

2. Write a sentence containing a collective noun.

3. State the number of the following nouns: mathematics, scissors, deer, alms.

4. Write the plural of Englishman, Frenchman, Mussulman, Ottoman, German, talisman.

5. Give three nouns (a) that have no singular form; (b) that have no plural form; (c) that have singular and plural alike.

*See "Notes on Number," Appendix, page 237.
+ See "Notes on Number," Appendix, page 237.

6. Give the two plurals of the following words, and distinguish between the meanings: die, brother, cloth, penny.

7. How does gender differ from sex?

8. State the several modes of forming the feminine of nouns, and illustrate by examples.

9. From what language is the feminine suffix ess derived? What was the corresponding Anglo-Saxon suffix ?

10. Is there anything etymologically peculiar in the following words: songstress, spinster ?*

III.

1. Write two masculine nouns formed from the feminine.t

2. Write three nouns of common gender.

3. Why is there no need of such feminine forms as waitress, editress, etc.?

4. Write the definition of case, name the thrce cases, and illustrate by the declension of a noun.

5. What is the only case-inflection in modern English?

6. How do we distinguish between the nominative and the possessive case?

7. Explain the origin of 's in such a word as father's. Will the same explanation apply to the plural, fathers' ?‡

8. Write the possessive case plural of man, lady, enemy.

9. Explain the term objective case.

10. State the grammatical forms (that is, the number, gender, case, and person) of "hero" in the sentence "The hero perished in his prime," giving the reason for each form.

* Appendix, page 238. + Appendix, page 238.

Appendix, page 240.

CHAPTER III.

THE PRONOUN.

I. DEFINITION.

53. A pronoun* is a word used for a name or instead of a noun: as, "I say;" "He remained;" "Who is afraid?" "That is good."

I. A pronoun cannot be correctly defined merely as a word used
instead of a noun." This definition holds good with reference
to some of them only: it does not apply, for instance, to the
personal pronouns of the first and second persons (I, you), which
can by no means be said to stand instead of a noun.t
II. A pronoun resembles a noun (1) in having the grammatical uses
of the noun; and (2) in having, when the meaning permits,
grammatical forms to denote gender, number, and case. It differs
from a noun in not being a name. The noun describes, the pro-
noun designates without describing.

II. CLASSIFICATION AND INFLECTION.

54. Pronouns are divided into three classes: - I. PERSONAL. II. RELATIVE. III. INTERROGATIVE.

I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

55. A personal pronoun is one that marks grammatical

person.

The personal pronouns are: I, you (thou), he, she, it, with their plurals, we, you (ye), they.

Person has been already defined under Nouns (see § 51) as a grammatical form which shows whether the speaker is meant, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of.

* Latin pro, for, and nomen, a name, or noun.
+ See "The Pronoun," Appendix, page 241.

56. There are three persons: the first, the second, and the third.

A personal pronoun is of the first person when it denotes the speaker, of the second person when it denotes the person spoken to, and of the third person when it denotes the person or thing spoken of.

The ordinary definition above given has brevity to recommend it; but a more accurate description would be as follows:

1. The personal pronoun of the first person is that used when one speaks of himself singly (I), or of himself together with another person or other persons (we).

2. The personal pronoun of the second person is that used when one speaks of the person or persons whom he is addressing (you-thou, ye).

3. The personal pronoun of the third person is that used when any person or persons, thing or things, are spoken of (he, she, it, they).

57. Grammatical Forms.-In addition to person, the personal pronouns all express number and case, and the third personal pronoun in the singular number expresses gender.

58. Declension. The following is a tabular view of the personal pronouns, showing their various inflections and other changes.

Declension of the Personal Pronouns.

Second pers., solemn style.-Thou, thy or thine, thee.

Nom.pl. Ye.

The pronouns of the first and second persons have two forms of the possessive case: my, mine; thy, thine; our, ours; your, yours; the third person feminine has her, hers; the third person

plural has their, theirs. The former of each pair is used attributively, i. e., with a noun expressed; the latter is used independently, after a verb. Thus―

The former set are generally called possessive adjectives or possessive adjective pronouns; the latter are by some grammarians called personal pronouns in the possessive case, and by others are considered independent possessive pronouns, in the nominative or objective case, according to their construction in a sentence.

59. Compounds. A compound form is obtained for the personal pronouns, in the nominative and objective cases, by adding self or selves to the possessive of the first and second persons, and to the objective of the third person.

I. Sometimes these compounds are put in apposition to another word merely to give it force; in this instance they may be termed emphatic personal pronouns: as, "John himself went;" "They went themselves."

II. When used after a transitive* verb, such words are termed reflexive pronouns, as implying the bending back of an action upon the person or thing spoken of: as, "John hurt himself." III. The pronouns of the first and second persons do not mark distinctions of gender, because when a person speaks of himself or to another, the sex, being evident, does not require to be formally expressed. The plurals are necessarily indeterminate

* See § 91.