on a large scale, been more bitterly fought. This does not mean that the factory system has been looked upon as an unmixed evil, for it is plainly seen that in certain lines of work its adoption is both inevitable and desirable; but it means rather that in certain other lines of work no effort is being spared to maintain the handicraftsman in his full power and influence.

The attempt to do this, to preserve the handicraftsman and the small trades, is one of the features of the history of labor legislation in Germany during recent years. It has had as its result the formulation of two distinct industrial systems-the handicraft and the factory - and the enactment of labor codes for each. Legislation upon the factory trades follows in all essential particulars that of other industrial countries; but legislation upon the handicraft trades is utterly unlike that of England and of the United States, and is closely followed only by the Austrian legislation.

The chief feature of the regulation of handicrafts is the restoration of the old guilds, and through them of the apprenticeship system, with all its features of training boys by masters for whom they are working.

During the early years of the nineteenth century the main purpose of the industrial legislation of the German States was to free industry from the many restrictions imposed upon it in the past. In 1845 this legislation culmin

ated in the enactment of a general labor code. In removing restrictions, however, the effort was also made to bolster up and maintain the old guilds. The reason for this action was chiefly the desire to preserve the apprenticeship system. It was thought that the education of apprentices was a matter that should not be left to the hazard of a purely private contract. At the same time the Government was not ready to introduce a system for the official examination and regulation of apprentices. The law therefore defined anew the duties and rights of guilds and assigned to them the care of the interests of their trades, the regulation of apprenticeship, and the establishment and maintenance of relief funds for their members.

THE

HE following paragraphs, reproducing the more important provisions of the law regarding apprenticeships, show the great solicitude on the part of the State for the preservation of this system of trade instruction and the care taken that apprentices shall be thoroughly instructed in their trades:

In the handicraft trades only those persons have the right to direct apprentices who are 24 years of age and have completed the term of apprenticeship prescribed by the chamber of trade for their own trade, or have practised that trade without interruption for five years, either on their own account or as foremen, or

in a similar capacity. The higher administrative authorities can, however, accord this right to persons not fulfilling these conditions. Before doing so they must take the advice of the guild to which the applicant belongs.

Apprenticeship can be served in a large industrial establishment or be replaced by work in an apprenticeship shop or other establishment for industrial education.

If an employer is a member of a guild, he is required to submit to it copies of all apprenticeship contracts made by him, within fifteen days after their conclusion. The guilds may require the contracts to be made before them.

In the absence of regulations promulgated by the Bundesrath or central State authorities, the chamber of trades and guilds can make provisions limiting the number of apprentices.

In general, the term of apprenticeship is three years, though it may be extended by the addition of not more than one year. The chamber of trades, with the approval of the higher administrative authorities, and after having consulted with the guilds and associations represented, may fix the duration of apprenticeship in each trade.

Upon completing his term of service, the apprentice may be admitted to the examination for the journeyman's certificate. This examination is taken before a commission, of which there is one for each compulsory guild. Other

guilds may have an examining commission only when permission has been obtained from the chamber of trades. When provision has not been made for the examination of candidates for each trade by guild commissioners, apprenticeship shops, trade schools, or State boards of examiners, the necessary commissions will be created by the chamber of trades.

The examining boards must consist of a president, appointed by the chamber of trades, and at least two members, half of whom are elected by the journeymen's commission. The examination must show that the apprentice is able to perform the duties of his trade with sufficient skill; that he knows the character and value of the materials he must make use of; and that he knows how to take care of them. The knowledge of bookkeeping and accounts may also be required. The result of the examination is entered upon the apprentice's certificate.

THE

HE title of master can be borne only by journeymen who, in their own trade, have acquired the right to have apprentices, and who have passed the master's examination. In general, this examination may be taken only by those who have exercised their trade as journeymen for at least three years. The examination is given by a commission composed of a president and four other members chosen by

the higher administrative authorities, and must show that the candidate is able to value and execute the ordinary work of his trade, and that he possesses other qualifications, especially ability to keep books and accurate accounts, fitting him to carry on the trade on his own account.

'HE duties of the employer are to instruct

the apprentice in all matters relating to his trade; to require him to attend an industrial or trade continuation school; to see that he applies himself zealously and conducts himself properly; to guard him against bad habits; and to protect him from bad treatment on the part of members of his household or companions. The employer must personally direct the work of the apprentice, or place him under the direction of a competent person charged with his special instruction. He cannot require of him work beyond his strength or that which may be injurious to his health, and must not deprive him of the time necessary for his school instruction or for divine worship. Apprentices not living in the houses of their employers must not be required to perform house. hold duties.

If the number of apprentices of any employer is out of proportion to the amount of the latter's business and the instruction of the apprentices is thereby jeopardized, the lower