has been made, to give care and thought to the immediate expression. There will be greater ease and security, resulting in a better impression.

Much is said of the value of the habit of extemporaneous speech. This is great. The naturalness, the spontaneity, of unpremeditated speech is full of charm. It wins admiration. Moreover, the ability to speak without previous notice prevents embarrassment and makes one always ready to respond. But how do people acquire this very desirable power? They attain it, not at once, not, in most cases, as a result of aptitude, but as a result of the trained habit of thinking in an orderly manner and of expressing themselves without fear or hesitation. The persistence in habits of careful preparation will produce extemporaneous speakers of power.

CHAPTER III

EXPRESSION AS CONDITIONED BY THOUGHT

ONE may have something to say of vital importance, and may have his material well arranged in his mind, yet fail utterly to gain or hold the attention of his audience, or to make his ideas theirs. On the manner of expression, after all, depends to a great degree the effect of the spoken communication.

The term expression covers much that must be considered by the successful speaker. His method of saying things, arrangement of paragraphs, sentences, and words, choice of words and pronunciation of them, his manner of placing himself before the audience, his use of the body as an aid, and his control over the voice, all determine expression.

THE PARAGRAPH

The planning of a talk involves, to some extent, the paragraph division. You may think that paragraphing belongs only to writing, but it is as essential a part of speaking. In fact, since the hearer is deprived of that aid in distinguishing the parts of the composition, the paragraph indentation, he must be the more clearly made aware of the parts by oral paragraphing.

The word paragraph means a writing beside. The sign was used to call attention to something in the text, generally a change of subject. If you look at the King James version of the Bible, you will see this use illustrated. In

modern writing the paragraph has become the unit of expression.

This emphasis on the paragraph is, however, a late development in our use of English. As late as the Elizabethan age, even the best writers had little sense of the relation of sentences. If you read the prose of that period, you will find it very difficult to comprehend what the writer was trying to say, and still more difficult to grasp his ideas in logical relation. Bacon arranged his thoughts clearly, but his essays were not of the kind to emphasize structure. Sir William Temple, in the late seventeenth century, had, as Professor Minto says, "a certain apprehension, however faint," of paragraph method. Addison, famous for the smoothness of his style, was as notable for loose arrangement. Dr. Johnson was the first to bring into prominence, if he did not originate it, the practice of stating a general principle and following it by the particulars in arranged sentences. Though the marvelous use of illustration in various forms made Burke's statements clear, and though he often expressed in a sentence the topic of a single paragraph, he did not pay great attention to the connection of sentences.

It remained, then, for the nineteenth century, so rich in poetic form, to develop and formulate the theory of the paragraph, and thus help bring to perfection the art of English prose. De Quincey gave, as "the two capital secrets in the art of prose composition . . the philosophy of transition and connection," and "the way in which sentences are made to modify each other." Professor Bain, a Scottish philosopher, undertook to lay down rules for the paragraph. Macaulay paid more attention to paragraph structure than most writers. As the century grew old, many students, by a careful study of the best in the

works of great writers and speakers, were able to set forth some general qualities found in these works, and to formulate the methods used. In this way, we have learned how we, too, may emulate the best.

There are two reasons why the paragraph should receive so much attention. For a short composition or talk, on a simple subject, it is the only practicable form. In longer articles or speeches it is the means of setting off and developing clearly and smoothly each division or subdivision of the subject. Without the paragraph, the mass of material poured out before the public in these days would be confused, and fail utterly to penetrate the minds of most of us.

The qualities found to be vital to the paragraph are, in general, those essential to any written or oral composition taken as a whole. The first is unity. The paragraph must have a central idea, with lesser ones dependent on it. There should be no digression. When this central thought is determined, it must be expressed, in clear, concise, comprehensive form, in what is called the topic sentence. Often this is placed at the beginning or after an introductory sentence, but it may be in the middle or at the end. Indeed, some good writers and speakers express the topic of one paragraph at the beginning of the next. In speaking, the beginning is, for the sake of clearness, usually the best, though repetition at the beginning of the next often aids. The closing sentence may often be made to help unify the paragraph, by repetition in other words, of the central thought, or by summarizing. Within the paragraph each subdivision should have a sentence or clause to denote it, followed by such sentences as are necessary to treat that phase. Keeping the same point of view throughout, aids in giving the impression of unity.

Another quality that makes the talk pleasing to the hearer is coherence. This is obtained in two ways. The order of treatment should be natural and logical. What point will best serve to lead up to the chief point? What will be the smoothest progression? Then, the parts must be fastened together so that no gaps need be bridged by the mind of the hearer at the expense of the vital points. The hearer cannot go back and find the missed connection. It must be made for him so that he cannot miss it. For this, words, phrases, and clauses, even whole sentences, may be employed. Personal and demonstrative pronouns, time words, adverbs and phrases of place, expressions of comparison and of result, may all be used. It is best, however, to avoid using the same words of coherence frequently, and to use those for which there is some reason, lest they seem put there only because the speaker thought vaguely that he must insert some connective. This, that, it, however, nevertheless, in fact, then, too, afterward, meanwhile, on the other hand, but, on the contrary, therefore, as a result, so, are examples of words that may be used. When you speak, it is harder to think of the proper connectives than when you write. Therefore, it is wise to practice consciously the art of connecting sentences.

See transitional sentences, page 247.

Since it is impossible for even the best mind to retain all that a speaker says, it is especially necessary that the speaker obey the rules of emphasis. Otherwise, the impression left on the hearer will not be what was intended. Proportion must be observed. The most important point should be given most time, though not so much as to dwarf the others in comparison. One-third of the material should