ECUADOR

BY MARRION WILCOX

A

SITUATION AND PHYSICAL FEATURES

CCORDING to the claims of its own government, La Repub

lica del Ecuador (The Republic of the Equator), is bounded on the east by Brazil, extending from the Pacific Ocean, at lon. 82° 55' W., to lon. 72° 12′ W., and from lat. 1° 50′ N. to lat. 5° 30′ S., but nearly all of the region east of the Andes is claimed by Peru, and the boundary with Colombia is also in dispute. (See COLOMBIA.) Therefore, it is bounded on the north and northeast by Colombia, and on the southeast and south by Peru, according to the adverse views entertained by those competing governments. The area in its actual possession, including the Galapagos Islands, is about 120,000 square miles; the total area, if we include disputed territory, is nearly 276,000 square miles. For territorial divisions with their capitals and populations see PROVINCES AND CITIES, p. 362.

The cordilleras of the Andes traverse Ecuador, running nearly north and south, with elevated plains between the eastern and western mountains some of the latter forming a sequence that has suggested to geographers two parallel chains; and it is, indeed, true that the eastern and western limits of the broad band of Ecuadorian upland roughly parallel each other. There are four facts of special interest: First, Though we do not find here the highest single peaks in the world, or even in South America, there are nowhere else so many peaks of very great height, forming a group. Second, their equatorial situation gives to these masses of granite, gneiss, schist, trachyte, porphyry, volcanic detritus wholly exceptional contrasts in temperature. (See below, CLIMATE.)

Third, this region has been in the past, and is probably today, more subject to volcanic disturbances than any other in South America. Fourth, as an offset to the group of high peaks, the Andean ridges sink downward, forming the lowest pass that exists at any point between Colombia and the southern division of the Andes. The principal rivers of the lowlands of western Ecuador, running from the central region of mountains and high plains to the Pacific, are the Guayas and the Esmeraldas. The former empties into the Gulf of Guayaquil. In the eastern lowlands, the Napo and its tributaries belong to the Amazon River-system. There are numerous small lakes.

The mean temperature of the coast at Guayaquil, etc., is 80° F., that of the interior ranges from 95° F. in the lower valleys to 65° F. or even 50° F. on the plateaus, according to the altitude. The lower slopes of the mountains are torrid; the highest crests are snow-clad. The elevated valleys of the Andes have a very salubrious climate. They lie at an altitude of from 7,500 to 9,000 feet, where the temperature is moderate and fever unknown. The climate of the capital is temperate and springlike throughout the year, with little variation, and it is said to be one of the best in the world for the cure of tuberculosis. There are two seasons only, the rainy lasting from December to May, and the dry from June to November. The first meteorological station in Ecuador was established in 1915. It has since been in successful operation at the Quinta Normal (Agricultural School), near Ambato. Substations are now established at Sangolqui, Saquimalag, Latacunga,

Pansaleo, Mulalillo, Pillaro, Palate, Pelileo, Banos, Pilahuin, La Victoria, and El Puyo. They are in charge of the director of the Quinta Normal, where the data are computed and reduced to tables each month, which are published in the Bulletin of the school.

Mineral Resources

Petroleum, sulphur, gold, platinum, coal, copper, mercury, lead, and iron are found, but of these gold alone figures in the list of principal exports in 1914 (Report dated 1916). The Zaruma mines, province of El Oro, are worked on an extensive scale by an American company. That district contains numerous goldbearing quartz veins, which were worked by the Spaniards 100 years ago. Along the Santiago, Cochabibi, and Uimbi rivers in the province of Esmeraldas there are placer deposits of gold, and platinum is found in conjunction with gold in the Esmeraldas washings. Silver also is exported to a small extent.

HISTORY OF ECUADOR

The Quito Indians, who held the country near the present capital, were conquered, perhaps in the 10th century, by a more warlike race led by chiefs called Scyris. These in turn yielded to the Incas of Peru. On the death of Inca Huayna-Capac, the empire was divided between his two sons, Atahualpa and Huascar. The former, whose mother was a Scyri princess, revived the Quito kingdom; Cuzco and the southern empire were given to the latter. War broke out between the brothers shortly before the Spaniards under Francisco Pizarro arrived upon the scene, and this civil strife made possible the conquest of a great nation by a handful of foreign adventurers. (See PERU.) Benalcazar, the famous Spanish captain, completed the conquest of the Scyri kingdom, and seized the city of Quito (1534). Between 1564 and 1820 this region was administered as a presidency; and 36 presidents exercised authority there as representatives of Spain before the series of " presidents of the republic" began. Quito's first demonstration in favor of independence, 10 Aug. 1809, was quickly and savagely repressed; Guayaquil was more fortunate in her belated attempt (9 Oct. 1820). A campaign which resulted in the capture of Quito, after the battle of Pichincha, was organized by a triumvirate whose members were the poet José Joaquin de Olmedo, the merchant, F. Roca, and the soldier, Rafael Jimena. The battle of

Pichincha was won for the patriots by the Venezuelan general, Antonio de Sucre, Bolívar's lieutenant: the territory thus liberated was naturally drawn into the Colombian federation, which Bolívar dominated for a time. (See COLOMBIA.) In 1830, after the dissolution of that greater Colombia, Ecuador became an independent republic. The convention of Riobamba placed Gen. Juan

José Flores at the head of the government. His successor (1835-39) was Vicente. Flores was again in power from 1839 to 1845, and, with the approval of many partisans, tried to secure a much longer term and dictatorial powers. A second triumvirate, composed of Olmedo, Roca, and Noboa, carried on the government until a convention was held at Cuenca. This convention elected Vicente Ramón Roca, who served as president from 1845 to 1849. Vice-president Acásubi assumed the presidency when congress and the country could not agree upon a candidate; the country, however, continued to be disturbed until 1851, when Diego Noboa was chosen by a constituent assembly. In the following year he was

displaced by Gen. José Maria Urvina, at the head of a successful revolution. Urvina was president until 1856. Slavery was abolished during his term. Gen. Francisco Robles followed (1856–59). During the next two years the country had a varied experience: war with Peru, the dictatorship of General Franco, and the provisional government of Gabriel García Moreno. The convention of Quito elected García Moreno to the presidency (1861-65). Jerónimo Corrion, elected in 1865, retired in 1867. Javier Espinosa served from 1868 to 1869. García Moreno, as the leader of an insurrection, took office again (1869–73), and in 1873, secured re-election by the use of force. He was assassinated 6 Aug. 1875. Antonio Borrero, his successor, was driven from office by Gen. Ignacio de Veintemilla in 1876. After the expiration of the legal period, President Veintemilla made himself dictator. José María Placido Caamaño was president from 1888-1892; Luis Cordero from 1892 to 1895 when he resigned to put an end to bloodshed. General Alfaro, at first "supreme chief ", was legally elected in 1897. Gen. Leonidas Plaza Gutierrez succeeded him in 1901. In 1904 all religions were made equal before the law, and eventually the nation was declared to be the owner of all church property. In 1905, the clericals elected their candidate for the presidency, Lizardo Garcia, but he was overthrown in January 1906 by ex-President Alfaro at the head of an "uprising ", it is said, though really Alfaro led a "Falstaff's Ragged Regiment" and never thought his position secure in 1911 he himself was assassinated in Quito, together with a number of leaders. The president elected in 1912 was Gen. Leonidas Plaza Gutierrez. In 1913 contracts were made for the sanitation of Guayaquil. In 1914 government forces attacked the port of Esmeraldas, which the rebel leader Colonel Concha was holding and a large part of the city was destroyed by fire. In 1915 difficulties of a serious financial character were discussed in connection with delayed payment of interest on bonds of the Guayaquil and Quito Railway, and the lien on the entire customs receipts of the country held by European investors in that railway enterprise.

GOVERNMENT

Congress meets at Quito every two years, usually on 10 August, for a period of 60 days, which may be extended for another 30 days. The President of the Republic may also call an extraordinary session when deemed necessary or expedient.