one of the most important features.

The radiation of heat from the body is very nearly the same whatever the nature of the clothing. Wool, silk, and cotton are equally warm when thickness of the layer is the same. The most rational clothing, however, is that which conserves the heat of the body with the least quantity of material. Flannel would be the lightest and warmest; but, since it wears so rapidly, woollen cloths are more serviceable, because they wear better. The smoothly woven cloths are not so warm as the tricot cloths, but they are more serviceable.

The clothing should not only be light, but it should functionate well with regard to the absorption of moisture from the skin. It should take up the moisture as readily as possible, and should quickly dry out. For this reason the clothing worn next the body should be porous, so that all the pores may not be filled with perspiration. Closely woven goods is not adapted for this purpose. Some authorities claim that linen, of coarse mesh, is best adapted for this purpose because it does not retain the moisture as long as wool.

Protection against Heat.—The degree of porosity is an important feature in summer clothing. The color of summer clothing is also important. Dark clothing absorbs heat to some extent, and in consequence it is somewhat warmer than white fabrics or those of lighter colors. The degree of porosity is, however, the most important factor, because on this property depends the interchange of air through the skin. The effect of the direct radiation of heat from the sun may be inhibited in part by a proper covering of the head. For this purpose straw hats with broad brims are most serviceable. They shade the head and face, and allow free ventilation of the scalp, with a layer of air between the head and the covering. This is important, because air is a poor conductor of heat. Protection against Dampness. -During rainy weather the use of some impervious material serves to exclude the dampness from the body and clothing. Damp

clothing is injurious not only because it is liable to produce chill, but because it prevents the free evaporation of heat and moisture from the surface of the body. The importance of keeping the clothing dry in rainy weather. is therefore self-evident.

Protection against Injury.—Clothing protects the body against mechanical injury, from frost, or from the direct rays of the sun. Among civilized peoples protection of the feet is also necessary to avoid injury or annoyance in walking over rough ground. The sole of the shoe should conform to the shape of the foot.

This

FIG. 45.-Correct sole
(Hueppe).

a

FIG. 46.-Shoemaker's
sole (Hueppe).

is of the greatest importance. The length of the sole is the so-called Meyer line (Fig. 45, ab), which extends from the middle of the heel through the middle of the great toe, and lies parallel with the inner border of the anterior half of the foot. The breadth of the sole is indicated by the Starck line (Fig. 45, cd), which extends diagonally from the head of the first metatarsal bone to form the letter V. The shoemaker's sole is usually cut so that the shoe is symmetrically divided right and left by a line extending through the middle, and which commonly corresponds to the anatomical axis (Fig. 46). As the result

of wearing shoes with soles of this pattern we have subluxations of the great toe at s, whereby the latter is

FIG. 47.—Normal feet (Whitman).

FIG. 48.-Proper soles for normal feet (Whitman).

forced outward and increases the prominence of the ball This decreases the room for the other

of the great toe.

FIG. 49.-Deformed feet
(Whitman).

FIG. 50.-Shoemakers' soles (Whitman).

toes, and, in consequence, these are superimposed upon each other, instead of lying side by side.

Figs. 47, 48, 49, and 50 also give the outlines of

normal feet and the manner in which these normal outlines are deformed by the universal soles of the shoemaker. It will be seen that the shoemakers' soles, as figured by Whitman, in no way conform to the outlines of normal feet.

The heels should be low, broad, and long, so as to afford proper support to the body. High heels are especially injurious, because they place the larger part of the weight of the body on the ball of the foot. The shoes should not be so tight as to compress the feet. Laced shoes are the most rational, because they can be fastened to the feet in such a manner as to allow the least amount of friction. Rubber shoes should be worn only for a short time during wet weather, and should be removed as soon as they are not needed.

Injurious Effects of Clothing.-The clothing should be of such a pattern as to conform to the natural shape of the body without constricting or compressing any portion thereof. With regard to the covering of the feet, this point has already been discussed. Above all, there should be no constriction of the chest and abdomen. The abdominal organs and the lungs and heart should be as free to act as possible. The clothing worn by men is quite rational with this respect, but that worn by women, in general, is most irrational. The wearing of corsets is highly injurious, as has been frequently proved, and it is unnecessary to adduce facts to prove the statement. Corsets compress the chest and abdomen, thus impeding respiration and the movements of the heart. The abdominal organs are also compressed and correspondingly interfered with in their normal functions. The use of tight garters is also injurious. The clothing of women should be suspended from the shoulders and not from the hips, in order to diffuse the weight more evenly.

The wearing of heavy head-coverings is also injurious, because it places a constant weight upon the spinal colThe use of veils is especially injurious, because of the obstructed vision which they induce. The com

umn.

bination head-covering worn by women in mourning is injurious, and frequently leads to persistent nervous trouble, as well as to general fatigue from its weight. It is not unusual to see spinal curvature follow prolonged wearing of the head-covering fashionable in mourning.

Reforms in dress are quite difficult to bring into effect, especially if they are opposed by ancient custom as well as by modern fashion. As long as a form of dress is fashionable it is difficult to induce any one to relinquish it, no matter how injurious it may be or how desirable the change from a hygienic point of view.

Cleanliness in Relation to Clothing.-The excretions of the body through the skin are absorbed by the clothing, and consequently frequent changes should be made to prevent injurious effects from the accumulation of these products in the clothing. The excretions of the body fill the pores of the clothing and render it more impervious, and therefore less suited for the interchange of air. This is especially the case in those engaged in laborious work, where the amount of perspiration is great.

Starching and ironing tend to close the pores in clothing and render it more impervious. The wearing of unstarched clothing in hot weather is, therefore, more comfortable. In winter starching and ironing serve to conserve the heat of the body.

The amount of clothing worn must be varied with the season of the year and the sensations of each individual. The amount of clothing necessary to conserve the heat of the body of one person may be entirely too light or too heavy for another. The changes from lighter to heavier clothing, and vice versa, should not be made too suddenly. In localities where there is a variable climate, with frequent changes in the temperature and humidity. of the atmosphere, as is the case in the northern States during spring and autumn, the change from heavy to light clothing, and vice versa, must be made with great circumspection, in order to prevent the development of