factors. Rheumatism also is favored by the same predisposing causes.

In certain localities malarial fevers also prevail to a considerable extent among soldiers. This has been the case with our soldiers in the tropics in the last two years. The preventive measures which would tend to render a malarious locality healthful are draining of damp soil, pouring oil upon all stagnant bodies of water, the protection of the soldier by means of mosquito-bars wherever possible, and the avoidance of exposure after nightfall.

In camps composed of recently enlisted soldiers measles is very likely to make its appearance. Thus far no definite mode of prevention can be outlined against this disease except the prompt isolation of cases as they appear.

Tuberculosis is also prevalent among soldiers. This is the case in both camp and barrack, though in the latter it is encountered most frequently.

Diseases of the heart and blood-vessels are frequent as the result of the strenuous duties of the soldier. Long and forced marches result in the exhaustion of those with a weak circulatory apparatus.

Venereal diseases are always prevalent among soldiers. The prevention of these diseases is a most difficult matter, because it is impossible to control such a large body of men in their moral and social relations. Some good may be accomplished by banishing all known prostitutes from the neighborhood of the camp.

Scurvy is far less frequent than formerly, though it is not unknown even at the present day. This condition. may be prevented by proper regulation of the foodsupply, since it is known to be a disease due to improper nutrition. Fresh vegetables and ripe fruit are the most serviceable in this respect. In the absence of sufficient supplies of these, the use of lime-juice and vinegar will prove of great value.

Foot Inspection.-In the German army the feet of the soldiers are carefully examined, each man's feet

being inspected by one of his company officers, a medical officer, and the lazareth helfer, at least twice a week in barracks, and oftener in active field maneuvers. The method of making this inspection is to form the companies in squads, standing upon tables or benches sufficiently high to bring the feet directly under the eye of the inspecting officer, and to bring under his observation any wincing or flinching when the inspected man jumps to the ground barefoot. The inspecting officer passes down the line carefully examining the front of the feet and legs, which are bared to the knees, searching for strained tendons, blisters, improperly cut nails, or untrimmed corns.

Having passed down the line, the men are about-faced and the tendo-achilles carefully examined, and as they raise one foot and then the other the soles are inspected. As a man passes from the table or bench he leaps to the ground and runs to his shoes and stockings. This is to show any bruised soles or periostitis of the tarsus. Any cases of blisters, improperly cut nails, or tenosynovitis are at once cared for by the lazareth helfer. Those with more serious disorders are sent to quarters or hospital.

At the same time each man's socks and boots are carefully inspected as to the degree of cleanliness. As the infantry regiments average in marching a kilometer in ten minutes, being often pressed to a kilometer in from seven and a half to eight minutes, each man carrying 27 kilograms, this care of feet is necessary. When tables or benches are not available, the trunk of a fallen tree or a block of stone is made use of.

Body Inspection.-The entire body of every man in the German army is inspected by a company officer and a medical officer, careful search being made for any heart lesion, hernia, venereal disorder, skin disease, eczema, etc. This is in order that any physical defect that might be concealed by clothing or by the improper modesty or wilfulness of the enlisted man may be carefully noted, cared for, and reported.

CHAPTER XIV.

NAVAL HYGIENE.

THE term naval hygiene usually includes all that relates to maritime life, whether relating to war or to commerce. In a certain sense the application of hygienic measures to such a small and isolated community as found in a vessel is extremely simple. In modern vessels it is far easier than in those of even a decade ago. The improvements in construction, arrangement, and equipment have had a most salient influence upon the health of sailors and marines, and upon the comfort of passengers.

Though there have been important advancements in the construction and arrangement of vessels, it is still a difficult matter to supply pure air in sufficient quantities, because with the advancement in equipment there has been no relative increase of the air space available for each person. The air space on shipboard being necessarily limited, the average space per individual can only be indirectly increased by reducing the number of seamen to the lowest point permissible.

The vessel should be as large as possible with reference to the purpose for which it is intended, the arrangement of machinery and cargo should be such as to economize the utilization of space, and the size and location of the cabins should be regulated so as to afford a maximum amount of space for each person. The arrangement of cabins should be made in such a manner that it may be possible to secure complete isolation of any cases of infectious disease at some point removed from the seamen in their usual duties. The amount of space provided for each seaman is greater than had formerly been the case, but even at the present time it falls below theoretic

standards. The hospital cabins should be of greater space, because they are occupied during every hour of the day. These quarters should not be located in the forecastle, but at some point as far removed from the noise of the machinery as possible.

The cubic space allotted to each marine on war vessels has not been accurately determined and no data are available on this point. The fact that marines sleep in hammocks may be the cause of supplying a somewhat greater cubic space for them than for sailors on vessels of commerce where hammocks are not employed.

With regard to passenger ships, the German laws direct that each between-deck passenger have an air space of 2.85 cubic meters, and a floor space of o. 25 square meter. For first- and second-class passengers no directions have been made. The English laws direct that each man have 72 cubic feet of air space, and 12 square feet of floor space.

Ventilation. In modern vessels propelled by steam the introduction of forced ventilation by means of fans or steam jets is a comparatively easy matter. In this manner a definite air-supply can be assured, either by propulsion of fresh air or extraction of the vitiated air. By this means the defects arising from the small amount of air space usually supplied can be remedied to a great

extent.

According to information derived from the Bureau of Construction and Repair of the Navy Department of the United States, "All ships of war are ventilated on twoprinciples, natural and artificial. Natural ventilation is obtained through hatches, ventilating ducts, and other openings leading directly to the compartment to be ventilated, and depending upon a supply of air through cowls which are turned toward the wind. All livingspaces are further ventilated artificially, either by means of steam or electric blowers, which supply the air to or exhaust it from the compartments in question. Some compartments are fitted with both supply and exhaust blowers, but in general only one system is fitted, a natural

exhaust being obtained through the hatches or other openings into the compartment.

"No rules can be given for the cubic meters of space allowed per man. This is entirely dependent upon the design of the ship and the number of men carried. The design of the ventilating system, however, is such as to renew the air in various spaces in certain intervals of time, which may be stated approximately as follows: General crew space, the air to be changed once in eight minutes; officers' quarters, once in twelve minutes; engine-room or steering-engine room (where the air is hot and vitiated), once in two minutes; dynamo-room, once every three-fourths of a minute.

"The supply of air to a compartment depends not only on its capacity and the number of men in it, but also upon the temperature, which in some parts of the ship is excessively high, and in others is naturally low. No figures on efficiency are available."

Dr. Coppinger' states that "the question of air space and ventilation, as applied to men-of-war, has always been a difficult problem, and the progress of modern naval architecture, necessitated by altered conditions of warfare, tends in many ways to make its solution more difficult of attainment. Among these conditions may be mentioned (1) the very great amount of air space occupied by machinery and stores connected with torpedo. work, and (2) the introduction of water-tight bulkheads. These latter partitions are a great source of difficulty in respect to obtaining complete circulation of air throughout the ship.

"The introduction of the turret and barbet system of construction into battleships, with the consequent reduction and almost complete abolition of apertures for natural ventilation by means of ports and hatchways, has rendered necessary a very general introduction of artificial ventilation by means of rotary fans, to supplement artificial ventilation by means of funnel and funnel casing." 1 Trans. Seventh International Congress of Hygiene.