Adams, John Quincy-Continued.

father, John Quincy Adams soon manifested independence of political thought and action. He broke with the Federalists when he gave unqualified support to Jefferson on the Louisiana Purchase and, later, on the embargo. Speaking of the Federalists defending the Leopard affair, he said: "This was the cause which alienated me from that day and forever from the councils of the Fed

eralist party." It was not long until he became active in Republican circles, both as a diplomat and as a Cabinet officer. During his administration, he was Whig so far as favoring internal improvements, the national bank, and high tariff on importations. As ex-President, he was elected to Congress (1831) by the anti-Masonic party, but he there maintained a perfectly independent attitude. When he left Congress he supported the Abolitionists, and from 1836 until 1845 he was fierce in his denunciation of gag-rule.

Political Complexion of Congress. In the Nineteenth Congress (18251827) the Senate, of 48 members, was made up of 38 Democrats and 10 Whigs; and the House, of 213 members, was made up of 79 Federalists and 134 Democrats. In the Twentieth Congress (1827-1829) the Senate, of 48 members, was made up of 37 Federalists and 11 Whigs; and the House, of 213 members, was made up of 85 Federalists and 128 Democrats.

Tariff. Two acts relating to the tariff were passed in this administration that of May 22, 1824, and of May 19, 1828. Speaking of the latter in his Fourth Annual Message (page 980) President Adams said: "The tariff of the last session was in its details not acceptable to the great interests of any portion of the Union, not even to the interests which it was specially intended to serve. Its object was to balance the burdens upon native industry imposed by the operation of foreign laws, but not to aggravate the burdens of one section of the Union by the relief afforded to another. But if any of the duties imposed by the act only relieve the manufacturer by aggravating the burden of the planter, let a careful revisal of its provisions, enlightened by the practical experience if its effects, be directed to retain those which impart protection to native industry and remove or supply the place of those which only alle

viate one great national interest by the depression of another."

Internal Improvements.-The policy of President Adams differed materially in regard to internal improvement from those of his immediate predecessors. In his Inaugural Address (page 864) he said: "To pursue to their consummation those purposes of improvement in our common condition instituted or recommended by him [Monroe] will embrace the whole sphere of my obligations. To the topic of internal improvement emphatically urged by him at his inauguration, I recur with peculiar satisfaction. It is that from which, I am satisfied, that the unborn millions of our posterity who are in future ages to people this continent will derive their most fervent gratitude to the founders of the Union; that in which the beneficent action of its Government will be most deeply felt and acknowledged. . The extent and limitation of the powers of the General Government in relation to this transcendently important subject will be settled and acknowledged to the common satisfaction of all, and every speculative scruple will be solved by a practical public blessing."

Public Debt.-The public debt of the United States during the administration of President Adams stood as follows:

January 1, 1826...$81,054,059.99 January 1, 1827... 73,987,357.20 January 1, 1828... 67,475,043.87 January 1, 1829... 58,421,413.67 In his Second Annual Message (page 924) the President says: "It is well for us, however, to be admonished of the necessity of abiding by the maxims of the most vigilant economy, and of resorting to all honorable and useful expedients for pursuing with steady and inflexible perseverance the total discharge of the debt." In his Third Annual Message (page 952) he says: "The deep solicitude felt by our citizens of all classes throughout the Union for the total discharge of the public debt will apologize for the earnestness with which I deem it my duty to urge this topic upon the consideration of Congress of recommending to them again the observance of the strictest economy in the application of the public funds."

Finance. In his Fourth Annual Message (page 977), at the close of his administration, President Adams was able to say: "The condition and

Adams, John Quincy-Continued.
prospects of the revenue are more
favorable than our most sanguine ex-
pectations had anticipated."

He re-
ported a balance in the Treasury, Jan.
1, 1828, of $5,861,972.83; with a pros-
pect of a balance of over $5,000,000
on the first of the coming year. "The
receipts for the present year have
amounted to near two millions more
than was anticipated at the com-
mencement of the last session of Con-
gress.

Slavery."The

African Slave
Trade," said President Adams in his
First Annual Message (page 875)
"has long been excluded from the
use of our flag, and if some few citi-
zens of our country have continued
to set the laws of the Union, as well
as those of nature and humanity, at
defiance by persevering in that abom-
inable traffic, it has been only by
sheltering themselves under the ban-
ners of other nations less earnest for
the total extinction of the trade than
ours." But the intensity of feeling
with which the President loathed
slavery came out in its fullest force
when, as ex-President, he returned to
Congress and, single-handed, fought
the pro-slavery forces and brought
about the repeal of the "gag-law'
which the House tried to enforce
against the Abolitionists.

Adams, John Quincy:

Annual Messages of, 865, 916, 944,
973.

Astronomical observatory, establish-
ment of, recommended by, 602.
Biographical sketch of, 857.
Commissioner to negotiate treaty
with Sweden, nomination of, 254.
Death of, announced and honors to
be paid memory of, 2477.
Election of, notification of, 858.
Reply of, 858.

Finances discussed by, 869, 923, 952,
977.

Foreign Policy discussed by, 862, 868,
884, 895, 903, 922, 950.
Inaugural address of, 860.
Internal Improvements discussed by,

Proclamations of-

Commercial intercourse with British
colonial ports suspended, 941.
Discriminating duties suspended on
vessels of-
Hanover, 970.
Italy, 942.

Extraordinary session of Senate,
997.

Reward for apprehension of Willis
Anderson, 943.

Secretary of State, 604.

Correspondence in regard to claims
against France, 834.

State of the Union, discussed by, 865,
916, 944, 978.

Tariff discussed by, 979.

Tribute paid memory of Jefferson
and Adams by, 930.

Adams, Samuel (1722-1803); states-
man; b. Boston, Mass.; as a Revolu-
tionary leader, his work was most
important in the first and second
Continental Congresses; was a signer
of the Declaration of Independence,
and as a member of the ratifying
Congress in Massachusetts, 1788; was
lieutenant-governor of Massachusetts,
1789-94, and governor, 1794-97.
Adams, William N., consul to Santiago,
Cuba, nomination of, 2584.
Adamson, William Charles; b. Bowdon,

Ga., Aug. 13, 1854; was admitted to
the bar Oct., 1876; elected to the 55th,
56th, 57th, 58th, 59th, 60th, and 61st
Congresses from Georgia.
Addison, The, impressment of seamen
from, 2772.

Adee, Alvey A.; engineer, diplomat; b.
Nov. 27, 1842, in Astoria, L. I., N. Y.;
learned civil engineering; secretary
to American legation in Spain, 1870
to 1877; transferred to State Depart-
ment, and in 1878 became chief of
diplomatic division, and in 1882 was
appointed third assistant Secretary of
State.

Adee, Alvey A.:

Acting Secretary of State, 5536, 6475.
Second Assistant Secretary of State,
Canadian canal tolls referred to,
5678. (See also 5675.)

Adelaide. The capital of South Austra-
lia (area 903,690 sq. miles; popula-
tion, 362,604), is 6 miles west from
Port Adelaide, on St. Vincent Gulf,
with which it is united by railroad.
It was named after the queen of
William IV. It is situated on a large
plain, is practically square, with
streets built at right angles, and the
course of the river Torrens serves to
separate it into North and South
Adelaide. Several fine bridges span
the stream. The street-car service is

The city en

Adelaide Continued. modern and efficient. joys a large trade. International exhibition at, discussed, 5116.

Adet, Pierre Auguste; French artillerist, chemist, and diplomat (1763-1832); became minister to United States in 1795; in 1797 he severed diplomatic relations between France and America with a note from the Directory stating that France would treat neutrals as they allowed themselves to be treated by English; issued inflammatory address to American people. Adet, P. A., colors of France presented to United States by, on the occasion of the presentation of an address, dated October 21, 1794, by the committee of public safety, 181. Administration. This term is generally applied to the President and his Cabinet. The President as chief executive officer of the nation may direct, without consultation, the acts of any departmental chief, guided solely by the Constitution. He is authorized, however, to consult the heads of Departments. Washington consulted with his Attorney-General and Secretaries of State, War, and the Treasury. When in 1798 the Navy Department was established, Benjamin Stoddert, its chief executive officer, was admitted to the President's council. The Postmasters-General were not called into council until 1829, during William T. Barry's incumbency. Secretaries of the Interior, of Agriculture and of Commerce and Labor were invited to seats at the council table immediately upon the establishment of their Departments. Admiral. (See Navy.)

Admiral, revival of grade of, recommended, 6345.

Admiral P. Tordenskiold, The, appropriation in behalf of owners of, recommended, 3328.

Admission of States.-The Declaration of Independence declares that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States," (4). Its adoption on July 4, 1776, created as such the original thirteen States of the Union, viz: Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maryland, South Carolina, New Hamp shire, Virginia, New York, North Carolina, and Rhode Island. Shortly before this date several of the Colonies had modified their original charters and established independent local governments. Oct. 10, 1780, the Continental Congress passed a resolu

tion providing that western territory which might be "ceded to the United States by any particular State shall be disposed of for the common benefit of the United States and be settled and formed into distinct republican States, which shall become members of the Federal Union and have the same rights of sovereignty, freedom, and independence as the other States'; and in 1789 the Constitution made its provision for the admission of new States (see 24). Most of the States that have been admitted since the formation of the original Union have achieved statehood from a condition of territorial organization prescribed by Congress, although some have not gone through this process. Such territorial organization was first established by Congress in July, 1787, when it passed the ordinance providing a government for the Northwest Territory (q. v.) The method of direct admission is illustrated by Vermont, which was formed out of territory claimed by New York and New Hampshire; Texas, which was annexed; and California, which was admitted soon after the Mexican war, without waiting to be organized as a Territory. The usual steps by which a Territory becomes a State are: (1) A petition to Congress expressing the desire of the people for admission; (2) an enabling act passed by Congress stating the conditions of admission; (3) the adoption of a constitution and a form of State government by a convention of delegates chosen by the people; (4) the ratification of the constitution and the election of State officers by the people; and (5) a proclamation by the President announcing that the Territory has become a State. The first State to be joined to the original Union of thirteen States was Vermont, in 1791, and the last, Oklahoma, in 1907. Admission of States (see also the sev

eral States; Reconstruction; Restor.ation):

Acts for admission of certain Southern States vetoed, 3846, 3848. Recommendations

3086.

regarding, 3033,

Admittance, The, seizure of, on coast of California, 2456.

Affairs, Foreign. (See also the several powers.)

Expense incurred in, for which no provision was made by law, 108. Report on, transmitted, 5200. Afghanistan, a country of Asia, lying between 30° and 38° 20' north lati

Afghanistan-Continued.

tude and between 60° 30′ and 74° 30'
east longitude. The surface is ex-
tremely mountainous and there are
large desert tracts, but many of the
valleys are of great fertility. The
chief exports are cotton goods, indigo
and other dyeing materials, tea, sugar,
furs, shawls, carpets and horses; most
of the trade being with Russia and
British India. The population are
fanatical Mohammedans and are ruled
by a hereditary prince, called the
Amir. The Mogul Emperors of Delhi
ruled the land for two centuries, but
in 1747 it became an independent em-
pire. The British restored Shah
Shuja to the throne in 1838, and in
1878 marched into the country and
captured the capital, Kabul, settling
Yakub Khan upon the throne. This
Amir soon afterwards was responsible
for the murder of the British minister
and his entire staff, which led the
British to again interfere, and Ab-
durrahman was made Amir and held
the throne till his death in 1901, when
he was succeeded by his son, Habi-
bulla Khan.

In the Anglo-Russian agreement,
which was signed Aug. 31, 1907, Great
Britain undertakes neither to annex
nor occupy any portion of Afghan-
istan, nor to interfere in the internal
administration of the country, pro-
vided the Amir fulfills his engage-
ments toward the British Govern-
ment. The Russian Government de-
clares that Afghanistan is outside the
sphere of Russian influence and agrees
that its political relations with Af-
ghanistan shall be conducted through
the British Government. Equality of
commercial opportunity will be ob-
served. The length of Afghanistan
from east to west is about 600 miles,
the breadth, from north to south,
about 500 miles, and the area about
250,000 square miles. The population
is between 4,500,000 and 5,000,000.
The army is reported to number from
60,000 to 90,000 men, including 9,000
cavalry and 360 guns, with a con-
script reserve. At least 30 mountain
guns and howitzers of precision from
Essen are known to be in the country,
and probably enough breech-loading
rifles to equip an army of 100,000 men.
Afognak Island (in Gulf of Alaska,
separated from Alaska Peninsula by
Shelikof Strait), lands in, set apart
as public reservation by proclama-
tion, 5795.

Africa. One of the great divisions of
the Eastern Hemisphere. It extends

from lat. 37° 20' north to 34° 51'

south, and from long. 17° 34' west to
51° 28' east. It is bounded on the
north by the Mediterranean Sea; on
the east by the Isthmus of Suez, the
Red Sea, and the Indian Ocean; on
the south by the Southern Ocean, and
on the west by the Atlantic Ocean.
The countries bordering the Med-
iterranean have long been inhabited
by nomadic tribes of Moors and
Arabs. In Egypt are found traces of
the most ancient civilization. Be-
tween the cultivated tract which
borders the Mediterranean and the
Soudan stretches the great Desert of
Sahara, 2,000 miles from east to west,
and 1,000 miles from north to south.
Over a great part of this region rain
never falls and it is everywhere rare.
The inhabitants of Africa are chiefly
of the negro race, with Kafirs, Hot-
tentots, Copts, Arabs, Moors, Berbers,
and some Europeans. The western
coast was for many years ravaged by
European slave traders, who captured
the natives and sold them into bond-
age in foreign lands. (See also Afri-
can Slave Trade.) In the North and
Northeast Mohammedanism is the
prevailing religion; there is an inter-
esting national Christian church in
Abyssinia, and a Coptic church in
Egypt, both of ancient origin. Pagan-
ism prevails over the greater part of
Africa, except where the natives have
been brought under the influence of
missionaries of various denomina-
tions. Liberia and Abyssinia are
practically the only really indepen-
dent countries; the Congo Free State,
though nominally independent, is
really a dependency of Belgium. The
rest of Africa is apportioned among
European nations, Great Britain and
France being the largest holders. The
area of the entire continent is 11,-
508,793 sq. miles, of which 8,087,555
sq. miles is in the hands of various
European powers. The population is
estimated at 170,104,871.
Africa:

Agents sent to, to receive slaves
taken from vessels, 633.

Citizens of United States must not
violate rights of inhabitants of,
396.

Natives of, in slavery. (See African
Slave Trade.)

Naval force of United States sta-
tioned on coast of, referred to,
2173, 3071.

Repressing liquor trade in, sugges-

tions made by Belgium, 6363, 6425.
Slavery on coast of, 4160.
Vessels of United States seized on
coast of, 1857, 3017.

Africa, The, attempted seizure of Mr. Fauchet by commander of, 3344. African Slave Trade.-Prior to the discovery of America negroes, like other savage races, either enslaved or put to death the captives taken in war. The deportation of the captives to the mines and plantations of the New World increased the value of the African and made slavery rather than death the prisoner's fate. This disposition of captives also led many petty chiefs to wage war for the prospective gain in human chattels. The aborigines of America having proved too weak for the work required of them, the Portuguese, who possessed a large part of the African coast, began the exportation of negroes, in which they were imitated by other nations of the Old World. Sir John Hawkins was the first Englishman to engage in slave traffic. The first importation of negro slaves was authorized in 1517. Extreme cruelty and inhuman treatment characterized their transportation. They were landed at Haiti and Santo Domingo and placed in the mines. In 1619 a Dutch vessel brought a cargo of slaves into the James River. Twenty negroes were sold to Virginia settlers. In 1713, by the treaty of Utrecht, Great Britain obtained the contract for supplying slaves to the Spanish West indies. This stimulated the slave trade generally. Several of the Colonies attempted to prohibit the importation of slaves, but Great Britain forced the trade upon them. Virginia passed several acts forbidding the traffic, but they were vetoed by the British Government, as were also those passed by Pennsylvania in 1712, 1714, and 1717, and by Massachusetts in 1774.

Slavery was prohibited by Rhode Island and Connecticut in 1774, and by all the Colonies under the non-importation covenant of October 24, 1774, and forbidden by nearly all the States during the Revolution. The slave-trade question was an important one in the formation of the Constitution. The Southern States, except Virginia and Maryland, insisted that no restriction should be imposed upon the traffic.

A compromise was finally effected allowing Congress to prohibit it after 1808. The act of Mar. 22, 1794, prohibited the carrying of slaves from one foreign country to another by American citizens; that of May 10, 1800, allowed United States war ships to seize vessels engaged in such traf

fic; that of Feb. 28, 1803, prohibited the introduction of slaves into States which had forbidden slavery. In 1808 the importation of slaves into the United States was forbidden. The acts of Apr. 20, 1818, and Mar. 3, 1819, authorized the President to send cruisers to the coast of Africa to stop the slave trade. As no restrictions were ever placed upon domestic slave trading before its abolition in 1865, the surreptitious trade in imported slaves was not entirely given up until that time.

African Slave Trade (See also Slavery.) Abuse of United States flag referred to, 2134.

Act for suppression of, referred to, 5621.

Agents sent to Africa to receive slaves, 633.

American citizens engaged in, 2215. Information regarding, requested,

2907.

Cargo of African negroes

Captured on coast of Cuba, and return of to Africa, discussed, 3058, 3124, 3126.

Landed on coast of Georgia, referred to, 3065, 3069, 3086. Stranded on coast of Florida, and removal of, discussed, 967. Ceased in United States, 3779. Correspondence regardingReferred to, 2268, 2287, 2426, 2428, 2538, 2765. Surrender

of slaves to United States consul referred to, 1944. Discussed by PresidentAdams, J. Q., 875, 967.

Buchanan, 3086, 3124, 3126, 3180. Lincoln, 3254.

Madison, 470, 562.

Monroe, 583, 631, 783, 812, 819.
Taylor, 2553.

Tyler, 2215.

Van Buren, 1836.

Excluded from use of United States flag, 875.

Foreign slave traders discussed, 3446. International congress at Brussels for

abolition of, 5471, 5543, 6363. Interpretation given act prohibiting, 632.

Laws for suppression of

Amendments to, recommended, 2553. Should be more severe, 1903, 1931. Liberation of slaves by authorities of Nassau, New Providence, 2064. Proposition to Great Britain to abolish mixed courts created for sup pression of, 3989. Treaty regarding, 4055. Punishment for engaging in, should be same as for piracy, 779, 812.