depth; he can work with it on almost all lands, | plough, says Mr. Ransome, our minds turn at and in all weathers when ploughing can be done at all. The Wheel Plough (with high Gallowses).-This derives its name from having the appendage of a carriage and wheels. The body of the plough is essentially the same as that of the swing plough, and notwithstanding the different form of its beam, the point of draught should be the same as that of the swing plough, namely, to cut a line drawn from the horse's shoulder to the share or point of resistance. once to James Smith, of Deanstone, as the gentleman who has opened a very interesting and important view of tillage, by the system of subsoil ploughing, and thereby breaking the under soil without turning it up to the surface. His practical knowledge has long been devoted to the interests of agriculture, and the results have Been most beneficial. The plough he invented for the purpose is too well known to need a description, though we should consider our Essay incomplete without a sketch of it. See pl. 17,0; also g. Following the invention of James Smith, of Deanstone, was another of a different and much lighter description, the invention of Sir Edward Stracey, Bart., Rackheath, and the plough is called by the latter name. It answers the purpose of deep ploughing, that is, from 10 to 16 inches below the surface, and when preceded by the common plough, which is th plan recommended, the depth below the surface-ground is just as much again as the firs plough effects. In the Report to the Board of Agriculture from the county of Leicester, published in 1808, it is stated, "that more than thirty years ago, wheels were first applied to the fore-end of the beam, and it was found by 'pitching' the plough a little deeper, and setting the wheels so as to prevent its drawing too deep, the wheels were a sufficient guide, and the plough required no one to hold it except in places of difficulty." If properly adjusted, a lad of 14 years of age can manage it easily; and the writer of this article once saw, at a ploughing match, a lad having a plough of this sort-the only one in This plough answers admirably for underthe field-walking leisurely beside it, to the ploughing grass lands, and is made into a subgreat astonishment of the other competitors, turf plough by changing the wheel gear in and from whom, to their still greater astonish-front, to that of a carriage and two wheels. ment, he carried away the prize. This lad had been taught ploughing only a few months. P. Pusey, Esq., in an interesting paper in the Eng. Agr. Soc. Journ. (vol. i. p. 434), gives an account of a plough, made to his order by Charles Hart, of Wantage; at the hinder part of this plough was fixed a strong tine, something like those on Biddel's scarifier, for the purpose of under-ploughing the soil. This tine was made to rise or lower at pleasure; and from the description of its use and operation, valuable invention, as it may be easily attached to a plough of the common sort, and removed when not wanted. When one wheel only is attached to the plough, some persons give the preference to a small one to run upon the unploughed land, as it is less likely to clog up, and requires no alteration towards the end of the furrow; but others prefer a larger wheel which runs in the furrow, as it has an even bottom to travel over, and correctly regulates the width of the furrow-given in the above paper, we should think it a slice. It also more effectually facilitates the turning round at the headland, particularly if the horses have to go to the right hand. The larger wheel to run in the furrow, therefore, is Skeleton, or Cleaning Ploughs, are often the best for general purposes, and, with a lever transformations of common ploughs for that attached to it, is rendered very easy of adjust-purpose, by taking the mould-boards and shares off, and substituting for the shares subsoil or In the use of a gauge for the depth of plough-cleaning shares, with prongs. See Pl. 17, f. ing, whether of two wheels, one wheel, or a The plan of laying furrows in one direction, foot, the plough should be so regulated as to so as to have neither ridge nor water furrows, press but lightly on the ground when passing has within the last year attracted more than over it; thus admitting as little of the counter-common attention in Britain. It has led to a acting force between the wheel and share as possible. ment. In the Prize Essay by Henry Handley, Esq., the advantages of wheels are clearly set forth, and his arguments in favour of their use have since been very strikingly confirmed by the trials made under the directions of Philip Pusey, Esq. The silver medal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England was awarded to John Clarke, of Long Sutton, Lincolnshire, for the invention of a plough (see Jour. of Roy. Agr. Soc., vol. i. p. 66) for the purpose of ridge culture; by an easy transition of shape, which is accomplished in a very simple manner, this implement becomes, i. A double tom or ridge plough. 3. A horse-hoe, or cleaning plough. careful inquiry into the the system of ploughing pursued in Kent, and there seems to be a disposition among many first-rate agriculturists to try the plan, provided lighter implements can be furnished for the purpose, not exceed ing the power of two horses' draught. To this object some eminent practical farmers have turned their attention, and a plough, made under the direction of Mr. William Smart, a farmer of great respectability and experience at Rainham, in Kent, bids fair to open a new and very important view of the mechanical principles of the turn-rest plough, which he has remodelled; and it may be made equally applicable to the power of two or four horses. This gentleman, after many trials, arrived at the conclusion that, inasmuch as the work of the turn-rest plough depended on its wedgelike construction, its form could only be correct in proportion to its approach to the perfect wedge; and this form, obtained by straight 1 Amount of draught that different forms of mould-boards and shares require, in order to determine those best suited to the purpose. A mould-board that will best turn the work on either side of the plough, so as to admit of its being changed from one to the other, after the plan of the Kent turn-rest. A ready means of altering the depth or pitch of the swing plough while in motion, without stopping the horses, so that it may be accommodated to any difference in the nature of the soil, or inequalities on its surface, which the plough may meet with. The same as respects the wheel plough, without placing any of its forces in opposition to each other. lines in the direction, first, from the point of to the purpose, and likely to agree with the the share to the throat of the plough, to pro-description of the requisites just given; but duce the effect of elevating the furrow-slice; there is no doubt that the plough, in its various and, second, from the edge of the coulter to the forms, is capable of great improvement; and heel of the rest, to effect the turning of the flag, amongst the points to which attention may be is that which he has adopted; making these usefully directed are the following:-lines tend to an angle of 15 degrees. With the assistance of an ingenious ploughwright in his own neighbourhood, several ploughs on this principle were constructed, and these have been the basis upon which still further improvements in the detail have been carried out. They are now so constructed that the ploughman can readily shift his coulter by means of a lever, which reaches the bottom of the handles, and also his rests or mould-boards from side to side, without leaving his station between the handles of his plough, they being so arranged that, by withdrawing a small pin and pressing the projecting rest towards the body of the plough, the mould-boards on either side become alternately the land side when not in work. Many papers on ploughs and ploughing are Ploughs for the purpose of turning the fur-contained in the best modern agricultural perows all in one direction, and laying the slices riodicals. Wilkie's turn-rest plough is deat an angle with the horizon, as is done by scribed in the Trans. High. Soc. vol. vi. p. 484. the common plough, have been within the Mr. Heathcote's steam plough, Ibid. p. 72. Mr. last year or two brought before the public, but Laidlaw "On the general advantages of Twowe cannot learn that they have been generally horse Ploughs," Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. ii. p. adopted. 712. "On the Plough of Palestine," Ibid. vol. iii. p. 373. "On Small's Plough as a Drill Plough," Ibid. p. 854. "On the Mathematical Construction of the Plough," by Mr. Amos, Com. Board of Agr. vol. vi. p. 437. "On Wheel and Swing Ploughs," by Mr. Handley, Journ. Roy. Agr. Soc. vol. i. p. 140. "On Draught in Ploughing," by Mr. Pusey, Ibid. p. 219. "On Subsoil Ploughing," by Sir James Graham, Ibid. p. 245. "On the Rackheath Subsoil Plough," by Sir E. Stracey, Ibid. p. 253. “On the Charlbury Subsoil Plough," by Mr. Pusey, Ibid. p. 433. "On the Rackheath Subturf Plough," by Sir E. Stracey, Ibid. vol. ii. p. 37; and "On a Light Subsoil Plough, adapted for two Horses," by Mr. Gabell, Ibid. p. 421. In going thus at length into the subject of the plough, we have shown the present state of agricultural mechanics as respects those in general use. To have gone more fully into the description of those out of the common routine of farming, would have carried us beyond what we imagine to be the proper limit of this portion of the work. At the same time it must be observed, that there are a variety of purposes for which ploughs of a particular | form, different from any already described, are required; such as paring ploughs, draining ploughs, drill ploughs, &c. &c. On each, indeed on all of which, a considerable amount of judgment and ingenuity has been expended. Ploughs even for common purposes have been long in arriving at their present state; and there are doubtless many improvements that may yet be accomplished. The Plough in the United States. Whilst in Europe, and particularly in Great Britain, the plough has been so much improved, American intelligence and ingenuity have been rewarded In the construction of ploughs, the first ob- with great success in the same pursuit. The ject to be borne in mind is the proper perform-implement which the pioneer is obliged to ance of the work to be done; the next, that this make use of in first stirring and partially turnshould be effected with the least expenditure ing up the soil filled with roots and stones, is of animal power, and with the greatest econo- necessarily very rude, sometimes almost equal my; and, lastly, that they should be made as in this respect to those of the primitive ages simple as possible in reference to the plough- of husbandry. One of these rough contriman who will have to use them. The circum-vances is, in New England and the Northern stance of repairs, which will be continually required as the parts wear out, should also be kept in view, and the whole require to be made on an accurate plan, so as to insure every part fitting properly; the workman may then fix them on the spot as readily as a mechanic at his manufactory. Nor should it be forgotten that quality of materials and workmanship are main points in economy, and that to dispense with either is to pave the way to dissatisfaction and trouble to all parties concerned. It is difficult to suggest alterations on the present implements, which appear adapted States, familiarly called the Bull plough. The several improvements on the plough in the United States seem to have progressed, for the most part, with little or no reference to European plans or models, and to have been almost exclusively confined to swing-ploughs, wheel-ploughs being scarcely ever seen. Simplicity and economy seem to have been kept in view by all who have undertaken to improve or modify-the implement. As the various sections of the Union present varieties in the conditions of the soil, the ploughs are constructed with reference to these conditions, so that in the Northern, Eastern, Middle, and Western States, different ploughs are vaunted for their excellence. It has been observed as a singular circumstance, that to the celebrated author of the Declaration of Independence the United States should be also indebted for the first theory of the plough formed on mathematical principles. President Jefferson's letter to Sir John Sinclair, president of the British Board of Agriculture, addressed in 1798, is published in the Transactions of the Am. Philosophical Society, vol. iv. p. 314. It describes the mould-board, and the principles upon which it is properly constructed. (See American Farmer, vol. ii. p. 185, and Domestic Encyclopedia, vol. iii. p. 113.) In England the most complete set of experiments yet made to ascertain the particular merits of different ploughs, are those instituted by Mr. Pusey, president of the Royal Agricultural Society, and described by him in the 3d No. of the Journal of that Society. A condensed view of the objects and results of these experiments may be found in the Cultivator, (vol. viii. p. 10), together with the results obtained with American ploughs at the Worcester ploughing match in 1840. The points embraced in the English experi ments were: 1. The comparative lightness in draught, of wheel and swing ploughs. 2. The lightest plough absolutely, of whatever kind. 3. The effect of different soils upon the qualities, and chiefly on the draught of the plough. 4. The comparative tenacity of different soils. 5. The power of two horses to plough the strongest or clay soil. Ten ploughs, embracing some from the most celebrated makers in England, the highly famed Scotch swing plough, and several of those in common use in the different districts of the kingdom, were selected by Mr. Pusey for his experiments, and he was aided by the presence and advice of some of the most distinguished agriculturists in the country. The ploughs were worked by skilful ploughmen; and, as much interest was attached to the experiment on the Scotch ploughs, a Clydesdale span of horses and a ploughman accustomed to the plough were sent up by Lord Moreton to manage that part of the trial. The Scotch plough has obtained considerable celebrity from the strong praise bestowed upon it by Mr. Loudon, who declares the improved Scotch plough to be superior to any similar implement known in England. They are constructed on the principles laid down by Mr. Jefferson, in his celebrated Report on the true shape of the mould-board, addressed to the French Institute, which, he showed from mathematical data, should be in the form of a gentle hollow curve; other ploughs constructed more full and short, not raising the earth gradually like a wave, but throwing it over at once. In condensing Mr. Pusey's experiments, we shall select, as sufficient for the present purpose, from the list given by him, three ploughs-1st, the improved Scotch plough made by Fergu son, and entirely of iron-2d, a one-wheeled plough of wood, with an iron breast, by Mr. Hart, but commonly known as the improved Berkshire plough; and 3d, an old-fashioned plough made of wood, and such as is in general use in many parts of England, where it is called the old Berkshire plough. Some previous experiments had convinced Mr. Pusey that the Hart plough was of easy draught, and the ones now instituted showed that his impressions were correct. The Clydesdale horses were much admired in their work; and it was the opinion of the bystanders that such land, usually worked with four horses in line, might be ploughed with two such horses abreast; though it was said it would cost as much to keep two horses in that condition, as to support the four in their usual working state. On this ground, where the horses had a firm footing, they worked with perfect ease. In summing up the trials, Mr. Pusey remarks that the plough requiring the least draught was Hart's, though in the last trial it was beat by Ransome's two-wheel plough; and that of all modern ploughs the Scotch swing plough was the heaviest, "out of the question on a light soil, and by no means the best on a heavy one." The following table shows the average draught of all the ploughs on the several soils in which the experiments were made: Trial 1. Sandy loam 2. Clay loam 3. Loamy sand 4. Strong loam 5. Clay loam 6. Moory soil 17 stone. 471 66 A drawing of Hart's improved Berkshire one-wheel plough is given in the Cultivator, (vol. viii. p. 10.) The trials at the Worcester ploughing match in 1840, were made to determine the award of two premiums offered by the Massachusetts Agricultural Society, of $100, and $75, for the best ploughs, one for lapping furrows and the other for laying them flat. The following remarks by the reporting committee will enable the reader to understand the experiments, whilst the list of ploughs will show the number of inventors and improvers whose implements have acquired most celebrity in the eastern portion of the United States. The power required to turn over a given quantity of earth by a plough is a very important consideration. This power can be measured with great accuracy; greater than many of the committee supposed, before they witnessed the operation. The dynamometer, inserted between the plough-beam and the chain, measures with great accuracy the strength exerted by the team. Suppose the strength applied be the same that would be required to raise 336 lbs. over a single pulley; suppose also that the depth of the furrow is 64 inches with a width of 13 inches. Multiply 13 by 6, and you will have 84 with a fraction. Now, if 336 lbs. of power will take up and turn over 84 inches of earth, then 112 lbs. will turn 28 inches. Tried in this way, the ploughs exhibited showed the following results. The power in each case is 112 lbs. The terms used in this experiment are different from those adopted in the English one; but those who choose may easily compare them with each other by remembering that 112 lbs. is 8 stone, and making the furrow-slice to correspond, which in the American experiment was 84 inches, and in the English one 45; or 64 by 13, to 5 by 9. When this is done, the experiments will be found to correspond remarkably well, and the general results of both may be considered as establishing many important truths, some of which have been already pointed out. Thus it will be seen that in the same soil, and under the same circumstances, one plough will work 100 per cent. easier than another, or that one horse will perform the work of two, or two that of four, with the same ease. Could horses speak, they would doubtless direct a vote of thanks to the men who have invented, and the farmers who use, implements by which one-half of the severest labour the horse performs is done away. We very much question whether our farm-horses on our heavy wheat lands do not often perform much more severe labour than the highest rate named by Mr. Pusey (52 stone, or 728 lbs.), as we have seen them day after day showing more exertion and evident distress in ploughing than when drawing a ton a day over hard roads. Whatever may be the obduracy or tenacity of the soil, or the toughness of the sward; only one pair of horses is used, where, under the same circumstances, four would be used abroad, and the question is never asked whether the plough is of a construction so defective as to require 5 cwt. to move it, or whether it works with ease, with a force of 2 cwt. applied. Mr. Pusey estimated the fair draught of the Clydesdale horse at 168 lbs. or 12 stone, and that of a common English farm-horse at 112 lbs. or 8 stone. At a fair held by the New York Agricultural Society, at Syracuse, in 1841, the first of the regular premiums, $30, was awarded to the plough made by Howard Delano of Mottsville, the second premium of $20 to E. G. Holliday, for his plough, favourably known as the Laughlin plough. The Wisconsin and other ploughs attracted considerable notice; but the double mould-board plough of Barnaby and Mooers, from the excellence and novelty of its construction, the facility with which it would operate on side hills as well as on level land, and its ease of draught, rendered it deservedly a favourite implement, and the honorary premium was deemed well awarded. It was supposed by many very good judges of ploughing, that the resistance offered by the land-side share would increase the draught sensibly, but the result showed that such was not the case. The trial of ploughs which took place under the direction of a committee of the American Institute, at New York, was very well conducted; and although the number of ploughs on the ground was not as great as at Syracuse, the trials with the dynamometer were more satisfactory. It is to be regretted that some of the favourite Massachusetts ploughs had not been present for competition, as a full investigation and understanding of the matter requires repeated and careful comparison of ploughs in the same soils, and as near as possible under the same circumstances. We believe that such will hereafter be the case. The manner in which the report of the trials of ploughs last year at Worcester was presented, renders a comparison of the actual draught used there and at New York, difficult; but as the mode was adopted at New York that English experimenters have used, a comparison between the ploughs of England and Scotland, and those of this country, is more easily made. The following table, which we find prepared at our exhibition, is entitled to receive, over and above, the Society's plough medal of silver, bearing a suitable inscription, with the gainer's name. About 40 applications are made for the medals every year, so that at least 600 ploughmen annually compete for them; but the actual number far exceeds that number; as, in many instances, matches comprehend from 40 to 70 ploughs, instead of the minimum number of 15. The matches are usually occasioned by the welcome which his neighbours are desirous of giving an incoming tenant to his farm, and its heartiness is shown in the extent of the assistance which they give him in ploughing a field or fields at a time when he has not yet collected a working stock sufficient for the purpose. Ploughing matches are generally very fairly conducted in Scotland. They usually take place on lea ground, the ploughing of which is considered the best test of a ploughman's skill, though I hold that drilling is much more difficult to execute correctly. The best part of the field is usually selected for the purpose, if there be such, and the same extent of ground, usually from 2 to 4 ridges, according to the length, is allotted to each portion of ground to be ploughed. A pin, bearing a number, is pushed into the ground at the end of each lot, of which there are as many marked off as there are ploughs entered in the competition. Numbers corresponding to those on the pins are drawn by the competing ploughmen, who take possession of the lots as they are drawn. Ample time is allowed to finish the lot, and in this part of the arrangements I am of opinion that too much time is usually allowed, to the annoyance of the spectators. Although shortness of time in executing the same extent of work is not to be compared to excellency of execution, yet it should enter as an important element into the decision of the question of excellence. Every competitor is obliged to feer his own lot, guide his own horses, and do every other thing connected with the work, such as assorting his horses, and trimming his plough-irons, without the least assistance. The judges, who have been brought from a distance, and have no personal interest in the exhibition, are requested to inspect the ground after all the ploughs have been removed, hav. ing been kept away from the scene during the time the ploughs were engaged. The primary objects of the institution of ploughing matches must have been to produce the best examples of ploughmanship; and by the best must be understood that kind of ploughing which shall not only appear to be well done, but must be thoroughly and essentially well done. In other words, the award should be given to the plough that produces not only work of a proper surface finish, but which will exhibit, along with the first, the property of having turned up the greatest quantity of soil and in the best manner. (Book of the Farm.) The following will be found a useful table, showing the distance travelled by a horse in ploughing or scarifying an acre of land; also the quantity of land worked in a day, at the rate of 16 and 18 miles per day of 9 hours. 4 PLUM (Prunus, from prune, its Greek name) A genus of trees and shrubs, several of which are indigenous to Britain. Having already noticed the bird cherry (P. padus), the wild cherry tree (P. cerasus), the wild bullace tree (P. insititia), the black thorn or sloe (P. spinosa), |