Mr. Taylor's South-Down Sheep... How to Make a Good Hedge, THE GRAZIER AND BREEDER. Heavy Pigs, by DANIEL PARKER, About Feeding Stock, by JOHN G. WEBB,. Live and Dead Weight of Hogs, by ST. LAWRENCE,. Cures for Big Head and Poll Evil, by D. J. W... HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT. Cultivating and Manuring Orchards,. Mice and Fruit Trees, by ST. LAWRENCE, Fruit Growers' Society of Western New-York.. Culture of the Strawberry,. Time for Pruning,. Systematic Formation of Pyramids,. Evening Party Apple, by A. G. HANFORD,. Protection in Winter-Blight in Trees, by W. S. G., RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 99 See B. K. Bliss' Descriptive Seed Catalogue. AGRICULTURAL SEEDS. See B. K. Bliss' Descriptive Seed Catalogue. Prices moderate. Seeds warranted genuine. Catalogues containing accurate descriptions of 1,350 varieties of Flower Seeds, and upwards of 350 varieties of Vegetable Seeds, with special directions for the culture of each variety, will be mailed to all appli77 cants enclosing a three cent stamp. Address B. K. BLISS, Feb. 20-w3tmlt. PREMIUM Springfield, Mass. МАМ Мотн PURPLE EGG PLANT. Seeds of this highly improved variety mailed at 40 cents per ounce, 89 or 10 cents per packet. Remit in stamps. Address 89 ROBERT BUIST & SON, Seed Growers & Nurserymen, NEW FRENCH ERECT OR TREE TOMATO (De Lage.) 91 Grows in the form of a bush, very showy, productive, and of good flavor, (50 seeds.) 15 cents. LESTER'S PERFECTED TOMATO, true, (100 seeds,) 10 cents. The above will be mailed to any address upon receipt of the price affixed. Feb. 20-w6tmlt. B. K. BLISS, Springfield, Mass. DEVONSHIRE CATTLE FOR SALE One Devonshire bull, 4 years old last summer, bred by George Vail, Esq., Troy; a good and sure stock getter, will be sold at a price 95 corresponding with the times. Also two Bull calves, 2 months old, sired by the above, dams from 95 the Wainwright and Hurlbert stock. Apply to M. VASSAR. Feb. 20-wonceam4t. Sap Boiler, By remitting $1, $2, $3, $5 or $10 we will send, free of charge, liberal 94 assortments put up for family use as may be wanted. Our collection of FLOWER SEEDS, embracing everything new from London, Hamburgh and Paris, are from the best Florists of Europe. and have always proved to be good and true. Such as are raised best in this country are grown by our senior partner, JOSEPH BRECK, Esq., President of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, whose well known love of flowers will not allow any that are not really fine to grow in his garden, or the seeds from indifferent ones to be sold. By remitting $1, $2, $3, $5 or $10 the finest selections will be made by himself, and forwarded. Catalogues gratis. Feb. 20-w6tmat. OTTON-WOOD CUTTING S.On the receipt of a quarter of a dollar, I will forward by mail, to any adress, a package of cuttings of the BEES-The subscriber will sell a large number of ITALIAN BEES, GREAT WESTERN COTTON-WOOD, one of the largest and most magnificent trees of the western forest. The Cotton-wood is very easy of propagation, and remarkably tena. cious of life; the cuttings take root more readily, the tree grows more rapidly, and bears transplanting with less inconvenience than any other forest tree, attaining at the age of 3 or 4 years a height of from the queens, or full colonies-Two hundred stocks of common bees15 to 25 feet, with a wide, dense pyramidal head, putting on its foliage Glass honey boxes-Books on Bee Culture, &c. Circular with prices early in the spring, and retaining it till late in the fall, affording an sent on application. Address M. QUINBY, amount of rich, luxuriant shade not to be obtained by any other Feb. 20-w3tm2t. St. Johnsville, Montgomery Co., N. Y. means in the same time. The tree flourishes in every variety of soil from the rich alluvial river bottom to the highest sandy ridges. The THOROUGHBRED DEVON S.cuttings will be taken from young thrifty trees, and if planted accordBULLS AND HEIFERS, ing to directions, which will accompany cach package, will all be sure from imported stock. For sale by EDWARD G. FAILE, to grow. Parties wishing to adorn their grounds with a novelty, and one of nature's noblest ornaments, can do so at a trifling cost by addressing HENRY CHAPMAN, Waterloo, Blackhawk Co., Iowa. Feb. 20-w&m1t. Feb. 20-wlyr.* West Farms, Westchester Co., N. Y. PANISH AND DORKING FOWLS. LETTERS ON MODERN AGRICULTURE, Dorking hems. Any person having the pure breed, at a fair price, can by Baron Von Liebig-just published, and for sale at this Office. find a customer by applying to Sent by mail, post-paid, for $1. UBLISHED BY LUTHER TUCKER & SON ed to the member who produces the best essay and review of the subjects above named, and the discussions thereon during the session. Pu EDITORS AND PROPRIETORS, 395 BROADWAY, ALBANY, N. Y. J. J. THOMAS, ASSOCIATE EDITOR, UNION SPRINGS, N. Y. TERMS FIFTY CENTS A YEAR-Ten copies of the CULTIVATOR and Ten of the ANNUAL REGISTER OF RURAL AFFAIRS, with one of each free to the Agent, Five Dollars. THE CULTIVATOR has been published twenty-eight years. A NEW 7, 8, 9, 60 and 61 can be furnished, bound and pest paid, at $1.00 each. "THE COUNTRY GENTLEMAN," a weekly Agricultural Journal of 16 quarto pages, making two vols. yearly of 416 pages, at $2.00 per year, is issued by the same publishers, SERIES was commenced in 1853, and the nine volumes for 1853, 4, 5, 6, The Value of Manures Tested by Analysis. In what we have said in these columns with regard to the worthlessness of Analysis of Soils, as a measure or test of their productive capacity, we have never intended to utter a word that should cast a doubt upon the great and well proven importance of analysis as a means of ascertaining the pecuniary value of artificial manures. We have lately found, however, that some manufacturers of these articles have skillfully availed themselves of the The Cultivator & Country Gentleman. discredit into which the investigations of the chemist PRACTICAL HINTS FROM ABROAD. supposed to have been "progressed" in some way altogether inexplicable to science, to a degree of "practical" efficacy which science is equally unable to understand. have fallen as to the composition of the soil, to diffuse quietly but yet extensively, the notion that they are The Operations of Farmers' Clubs. equally useless in a practical point of view, as a test of As an example of the way in which the meetings of the value of purchased fertilizers. If analysis happens many of the most successful Farmers' Clubs in England to prove them of a real value astonishingly small, as are managed, our readers will be interested in the follow-compared with the price at which they are sold, the maing list of subjects for the monthly meetings of the "Wir- terials entering into their composition are conveniently ral Agricultural Improvement Society," for 1862. The name which follows each subject, is that of the member of the club who has agreed to prepare and read a formal paper upon it; other members are also expected to be Now, in Great Britain, this matter is well understood. ready to join in a discussion of the views thus propound- No respectable manufacturer of Manures objects to the ed, after the reading of the paper. Particularly when the test of analysis, and farmers have learned to base all their writer is supposed to hold views that differ in any way calculations as to cost and return, upon the result it gives. from those of his neighbors, there are never lacking This is illustrated in quite frequent information given among them some who are ready either to combat or support through the agricultural papers, as to the commercial the opinions expressed, and the result is a valuable, well value at current rates, of some fertilizer, the analysis of considered, animated and useful debate, in which no little which has been submitted for examination, by readers experience and not a few new facts are brought to light, and desirous of reliable advice. As an instance of this kind, which the agricultural journals profitably and gladly pub- we may quote the answer to such an inquiry contained in lish at great length. Many of the subjects in the follow-the last North British Agriculturist, which happening to ing programme are quite as important here, as they are in England; and we wish that our Clubs might be led to take up similar questions in a similarly exhaustive and earnest way come to our notice as we write, suggested to us the foregoing remarks. The inquirer asks the value of the separate ingredients of the manure analysed, and of the whole in quantity; and we copy below the answer he re February-Best means of improving poor meadows.-R.ceives: [For the Country Gentleman and Cultivator.] THE CONDITIONS OF GERMINATION. BY PROF. SAMUEL W. JOHNSON. The plant begins with the seed. The embryo is a plant in miniature, or rather in most cases, it contains a rudimentary organism, which under certain influences is capable of developing into a plant. The first process of development wherein the young plant commences to manifest its separate life, and in which it is shaped into its proper and peculiar form, is called germination. In the mature seed when kept from excess of moisture, the embryo lies dormant. The duration of its vitality is very various. The seeds of the willow and coffee will not grow after having once become dry, but must be sown when fresh; the former loses its germinative power in two, the latter in six weeks after ripening. The radicle divides and subdivides, in beginning the issue of true roots. When the plantlet ceases to derive nourishment from the mother seed, the process is finished. As to the conditions of germination, we have to consider the following: The soil is usually the medium of moisture, warmth, &c., and it affects germination only as it influences the supply of these agencies; it is not otherwise essential to the process. The burying of seeds when in the field or garden, serves to cover them away from birds and keep them from drying up. In the forest at spring time, we may see innumerable seeds sprouting upon the surface, or but half covered with decayed leaves. who experimented with numerous seeds, observed none to He In the following table are given the special temperatures for six common plants: Wheat,. Pea Maize.. Lowest Highest. Temperature of Germination. 104 deg. Fab. 104 do. Temperature of most rapid Germination, 84 deg Fab. 84 do. 41 do. 44.5 do. 102 do. 84 do. 48 do. 115 do. 93 do. do. With regard to the duration of the vitality of the seeds of agricultural plants, there is no little conflict of opinion among those who have experimented with them. The leguminous seeds appear to remain capable of germination during long periods. Girardin sprouted beans that were over a century old. Grimstone with great pains raised peas from a seed taken from a sealed vase found in the sarcophagus of an Egyptian mummy, presented to the British Museum by Sir G. Wilkinson, and estimated to be near 3000 years old. The seeds of wheat usually lose their power of growth after having been kept 3 to 7 years. Count Sternberg is said to have succeeded in germinating wheat taken from an Egyptian mummy, but only after soaking it in oil. He relates that this ancient For all agricultural plants that are cultivated in Newwheat manifested no vitality when placed in the soil under England a range of temperature of from 55° to 90° is ordinary circumstances, nor even when submitted to the adapted for healthy and speedy germination. It will be action of acids or other substances which gardeners some-noticed in the above table that the seeds of plants introtimes employ with a view to promote sprouting. Vilmorin duced into northern latitudes from tropical regions, as the doubts altogether the authenticity of the mummy squash, bean and maize, require and endure a higher temwheat." The fact appears to be, that the circumstances perature than those native to temperate latitudes, as are under which the seed is preserved, greatly influence the wheat and barley. The extremes given above are by no duration of its vitality. means so wide as would be found, were we to experiment with other plants. It is probable that some seeds will germinate nearly at 32 deg., or the freezing point of water, while the cocoa nut is said to yield seedlings with the greatest certainty when the heat of the soil is 120 deg. Sachs has observed that the temperature at which germination takes place materially influences the relative development of the parts, and thus the form of the seedling. According to this industrious experimenter, very low temperatures retard the production of new rootlets, buds and leaves. The rootlets, which are rudimentary in the embryo, become, however, very long. On the other hand very high temperatures cause the rapid formation of new roots and leaves even before those existing in the germ are fully unfolded. The medium and most favorable temperatures bring the parts of the embryo first into development, at the same time the rudiments of new organs are formed, which are afterward to unfold. A certain amount of moisture is indispensable to all The general process and conditions of germination growth. In germination it is needful that the seed should are familiar to all. In agriculture and ordinary garden-absorb water so that motion of the contents of the germing, we bury the ripe and sound seed a little way in the soil, and in a few days it usually sprouts, provided it finds a certain degree of warmth and moisture. cells can take place. Until the seed is more or less imbued with moisture, no signs of sprouting are manifested, and if a half-sprouted seed be allowed to dry, the process of growth is effectually checked. The degree of moisture which different seeds will endure or require, is exceedingly various. The seeds of aquatic plants naturally germinate when immersed in water. The seeds of many land plants indeed will quicken under water, but they germinate most healthfully when moist-but not wet. Excess of water often causes the seed to rot. Let us attend somewhat in detail to the phenomena of germination, and to the requirements of the awakening seed. We observe that the seed first absorbs moisture, in consequence of which it swells and becomes more soft; we see the germ enlarging beneath the seed-coats, shortly the integuments burst, and the rootlet or radicle appears; afterward the plumule or stem becomes manifest. In all agricultural plants the radicle buries itself in the soil and avoids the light. The plumule ascends into the atmos- Free oxygen as contained in the air, is likewise essenphere and seeks exposure to the direct sunbeams, where tial. Saussure demonstrated by experiment that proper it shortly unfolds new leaves, and if coming from the seed germination is impossible in its absence, and cannot proof a branched plant, lateral buds make their appearance.ceed in an atmosphere of other gases. The chemical ac tivity of oxygen appears to be the means of exciting the growth of the embryo. It has been taught that light is prejudicial to germination, and that therefore seeds must be covered. (Johnston's Lectures on Ag. Chem. and Geology, 2d Eng. Ed. pp. 226 and 227.) When, however, we consider that nature does not bury seeds, but scatters them on the surface of the ground of forest and prairie, where they are at the most half covered and by no means removed from the light, we cannot accept such a doctrine. The warm and moist forests of tropical regions, which, though shaded are by no means dark, are covered with sprouting seeds. The gardener knows that the seeds of heath, calceolarias and some other ornamental plants germinate best when uncovered, and the seeds of common agricultural plants will sprout when placed on moist sand or sawdust, with apparently no less readiness than when buried out of sight. The time required for germination varies exceedingly according to the kind of seed. As ordinarily observed, the fresh seeds of the willow begin to sprout within twelve hours after falling to the ground. Those of clover, wheat and other grains, germinate in three to five days. The fruits of the walnut, pine and larch, lie four to six weeks before sprouting, while those of some species of ash, beech and maple, are said not to germinate before the expiration of one and a half or two years. The starchy and thin-skinned seeds quicken most readily. The oily seeds are in general more slow; while such as are situated within thick and horny envelopes, require the longest periods to excite growth. The time necessa ry for germination depends naturally upon the favorableness of other conditions. Cold and drouth delay the process, when they do not check it altogether. Seeds that are buried deeply in the soil may remain for years, preserving but not manifesting their vitality, because they are either too dry, too cold, or have not sufficient access to oxygen to set the germ in motion. porous soil of the gardens of New-Haven, peas may be sown six to eight inches deep without detriment, and are thereby secured from the ravages of the domestic pigeon. The Moqui Indians, dwelling upon the table lands of the higher Colorado, deposit the seeds of maize 12 to 14 inches below the surface. Thus sown, the plant thrives, while if treated according to the plan usual in the United States and Europe, it might never appear above ground. The reasons for such a procedure are the following: The country is without rain and almost without dew. In summer the sandy soil is continuously parched by the sun, at a temperature often exceeding 100 degrees in the shade. It is only at the depth of a foot or more that the seed finds the moisture needful for its growth-moisture furnished by the melting of the winter snows." Yale College, New-Haven, Ct., Feb. 18. [For the Country Gentleman and Cultivator.] Potatoes--Plant Early, Plant Deep and Dig Late. EDITORS OF CO. GENT.—I have observed of late several articles in the Co. GENT., recommending early digging of potatoes attacked with disease. Now my observation and experience have led me to an entirely different practice. For several years after the appearance of the potato disease in this country early digging was recommended, which plan I practiced repeatedly, sometimes spreading my potatoes on the bottom of a dry cellar, and sometimes burying them in pits, always with great and sometimes total loss, not to mention the disagreeable labor of overhauling them, in those seasons when the disease was prevalent. Assuming that the disease is atmospherical, epidemic and contagious, I changed my practice-which for the last fifteen years has been perfectly satisfactory-leaving my potatoes in the ground as late in the fall as would be To speak with precision, we should distinguish the time safe on account of frost-all potatoes then sound, keepfrom planting the dry seed to the commencement of gering good both in the cellar and in pits. mination, which is marked by the rootlet becoming visi- Now for the "reason for the faith that is in me." For ble, and the period that elapses until the process is com- several years I have observed that those tubers that were plete, i. e., when the stores of the mother-seed are ex-deepest in the ground, and the hills the least conical or hausted, and the young plant is entirely thrown upon its elevated above the surface, were invariably the freest own resources. At 41° F., in the recent experiments of from disease. Hence I inferred they were safer in the Haberlandt, the rootlets issued after four days in the case ground than out, being less exposed to heat, light, and of rye, and in five to seven days in that of other grains atmosphere, and contagion from contact. and clover. The sugar beet, however, lay at this temperature 22 days before beginning to sprout. At 51° the time was shortened about one-half, in case of the seeds just mentioned. Maize required eleven, the kidney bean eight, and tobacco thirty-one days at this temperature. At 65° the grains, clover, peas and flax, began to sprout in one to two days; maize, beans and sugar beet in three days, and tobacco in six days. The time of completion varies with the temperature much more than that of beginning. It is, for example, accoring to Sachs, at 41° to 55° for wheat and barley, 40 to 45 days; at 95° to 100° for the same, 10 to 12 days. At a given temperature, small seeds complete germination much sooner than large ones. Thus at 55 to 60° the process is finished with beans in 30 to 40 days; with maize, in 30 to 35 days; with wheat, in 20 to 25 days; with clover, 8 to 10 days. These differences are simply due to the fact that the smaller seeds have smaller stores of nutriment for the young plant, and are therefore more quickly exhausted. An important deduction for practice, from the facts above set forth, is, that general rules with regard to the depth to which seeds should be sown, must not be laid down too rigidly, but circumstances must be allowed to alter cases. Your correspondent J. L. R., says that he dug his potatoes the 12th of Sept., and had only twelve bushels of sound potatoes, and thinks had he dug them a month earlier he might have had 40; and so he might, and very likely would have had them to overhaul and a portion to throw away, and the balance being so much exposed to light and air as to render them neither healthy nor palatable. Many years ago I had an acre of potatoes which in the month of August were attacked with disease, and to save them, I dug them and spread the apparently sound ones on my cellar bottom, which was dry, giving them what air I could. But in a very few days they commenced fermenting,-"sweating at every pore," and the result was, after sundry sortings and overhaulings, I had them all to throw away. I should have said however, that a few hills were left undug until late in the fall, from which I obtained a basket of sound potatoes worth more than all those dug in August, not to mention the disagreeable labor attending the removal to and from the cellar. And now after more than twenty years of experience and experimenting on the potato rot, I have settled on this practice-plant early, plant deep, and dig as late as possible, avoiding frost, that is, freezing of tubers, and you will get the most sound potatoes with the least labor. Adrian, Mich., Feb. 16, 1862. B. J. HARVEY. While it is the almost universal result of experience in GOOD PIGS.-Mr. Wm. P. Giles of Skaneateles, recenttemperate regions, that agricultural seeds germinate mostly killed four hogs that weighed 1,200 pounds, at 8 months surely when sown at a depth not exceeding 1 to 3 inches, and 17 days, one of which weighed when dressed 351 there are circumstances under which a widely different pounds. They were fed on milk. I consider ground oats practice is admissible or even essential. In the light and a superior feed for hogs. B. A BUREAU OF AGRICULTURE. Hon. OWEN LOVEJOY sends us the Report of the Congressional Committee on Agriculture, of which he is chairman, submitted in the House of Representatives, Feb. 11th, in favor of the "establishment of an Agricultural Department or Bureau." * theoretical investigations mainly to those better fitted to carry them on wisely and well. It should not be turned into a hospital for rejected office-seekers in other departments; nor into a seed and flower establishment for the supply of what any seedsman or florist will be glad to sell us; nor into a publication office of collated extracts and re-hashed essays, presenting nothing that has not been printed before in other forms, and nowhere serving to carry forward one step the real agricultural knowledge of the day. If our Government proposes in earnest thus to extend its helping hand to our industrial interests, we trust the new bureau will be committed to hands not nolevel of petty political influences; that it will publish retoriously incompetent; that it will be raised above the eliciting here and there a new fact, or getting now and then some ray of light, however feeble, in channels before obscure. If space permitted we should be glad to treat to, in despair that what any true friend of Agriculture this subject at greater length;-we have avoided it hither This action was specially recommended in President LINCOLN's last annual Message; and the Secretary of the Interior, in his report then presented, also urged "the establishment of a bureau of agriculture and statistics, the need whereof," he remarks, "is not only realized by the heads of departments, but is felt by every intelligent legis-ports to which we may turn with a reasonable hope of lator. * * One of the objects contemplated by Congress in the appropriations for the promotion of agriculture was the 'collection of agricultural statistics.' Annual reports made under the direction of such a bureau, setting forth the condition of our agriculture, manufac-might say would receive even the most cursory attention, tures, and commerce, with well digested statements relative to similar facts in foreign countries, which the present rapid intercommunication enables us to obtain often in advance of their publication abroad, would prove the most valuable repertories of interesting and important information, the absence of which often occasions incalculable loss to the material interests of the country." The Report of the Committee on Agriculture seconds these suggestions, and argues the importance of the Bureau proposed, very fairly, but not with as much force as we should have been glad to see the question discussed, nor apparently with as clear an idea of the whole scope and uses of such a department as was entertained by the Secretary himself. and now we dare scarcely entertain much hope that the new bureau, if indeed it be created, will be placed upon such a basis as to secure the confidence of the reasoning and thinking Farmers of the country. TRIMMING BUCKTHORN HEDGES. MESSRS. EDITORS-I take the liberty to ask your advice in trimming a Buckthorn hedge that surrounds my fruitgarden. It has been set nine years; my custom has been to trim it once a year, the last of July or first of Angust. The first few years I trimmed it square; but by the regular weekly visits of the COUNTRY GENTLEMAN in my family, I have learned, among many other things, a much better way, and now it is a fair specimen of the pyramid form, nearly eight feet high. Now what I want to know is, how shall I trim it and keep the present hight, and preserve its beauty? I find the leaves are nearly all on the outside, and if I cut close to the previous cutting, I rob my "pet" of all its beauty-the leaves." I don't want it "What is to be higher, as it is difficult to trim now. done?" WILLIS P. SARGENT. Amesbury, Mass. Thus, in answer to the supposed objection, "Why not have a minister of commerce, of manufactures, as well as a minister of agriculture ?" it is justly answered that "commercial and manufacturing interests, being locally limited and centralized, can easily combine and make themselves felt in the halls of legislation, and in the executive departments of the government," while farmers are lacking in similar combinations to press their interests; and thus "New-York and Lowell have often more immediate in- The buckthorn, although a very hardy tree, is one of fluence in directing and moulding national legislation than those which will not grow well in the shade, and for this all the farming interests in the country." But the committee might also, and still more forcibly as it seems to us, reason its interior branches are nearly destitute of foliage. have urged the importance of such a bureau, from the ben- If very evenly and frequently sheared, a dense stratum efits it will render to our commerce and manufactures, of foliage is formed at the exterior of the hedge, preventquite as much as from those which our agriculture may ing the growth of any leaves inside. To avoid this reexpect from its establishment. For its true design should sult, do not shear frequently, (and never while the hedge be to include-as a department of "Agriculture AND Sta- is growing or in leaf,) but cut the surface with a knife by tistics "the whole productive capacities of the country in every department of industry. It is this which the Re-thinning-in-that is by cutting out for a short distance port of the Secretary of the Interior, as above quoted and inwards one-half or two-thirds of all the ends of the italicized by us, distinctly advocates; and, in such a bu- branches-going further in, and thinning out more severereau, Agriculture justly takes the first and most prominent ly according to the necessities of the case. This must be place, because, upon its condition, and upon the facts re- done early in spring, and never when the leaves are on. vealed by its statistics, so large a share of both our commercial and manufacturing prosperity is mainly depend ent. The interests of manufacturers, of merchants, and of farmers, are, we fully believe, in the long run far more likely to be harmonious and co-incident with each other, than they are to clash; and it thus results, not only that such a bureau, properly managed, is of itself partially a bureau of commerce and manufactures, but also that where it is specially promotive of the interests of Agriculture, it also exerts a secondary effect to the advantage of those other pursuits which can never be most prosperous except in the prosperity of the Farmer, and which deFig. 1 shows the section of a hedge which has been repend upon him entirely for the resources of their subsis-peatedly sheared at the outside, all the interior branches tence, and, very largely, for the purchase of their goods. A Department of "Agriculture and Statistics," we do need. It should receive, condense and circulate the Statistics now obtained in States which already collect them, and secure their collection in other States. It should be an active, living, working department. It should deal with the great facts of constant practice; and leave Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. being bare. Fig. 2 represents the same shortened or thinned back in the way here intended, presenting a more irregular or uneven surface, and admitting the light to the interior. Fig. 3 shows more particularly how this process is performed, the cut back being made at a fork b, or still horter at a; thus leaving no stumps. |