Isle of Pines. These soils have a relatively low clay content and a higher proportion of quartz sand. They are generally well drained but deficient in humus and lime and frequently require the addition of commercial fertilizer.

The swamp regions contain some clay and frequently large areas of peat and marl. In the mountainous areas, the soil is generally thin and stony and therefore unsuitable for cultivation except in the narrow fertile valleys.

CLIMATE

The climate of Cuba is semitropical and suitable for the production of most tropical plants. The temperature is uniformly warm and frost-free. Rainfall is plentiful in summer but light in winter. Although Cuba is located just south of the Tropic of Cancer, which passes between it and Florida, the climate is not actually tropical because of the tempering effect of prevailing winds and the ocean on both sides of the narrow island. The following tabulation shows the mean monthly temperature at Habana and the average rainfall for the island (1900-24):

January.

February.

March

April.
May.
June..
July

August..

September..

October..

November.

December_.

Annual..

• F.

Inches

Temperatures vary only slightly from day to night and from summer to winter. In Habana, for instance, it averages about 80° F. from June to September and only 10° lower during the coolest months, January and February. The extreme range of variation from winter to summer is usually from a low of 45° or 50° to a peak of nearly 100°. Rainfall averages 54.9 inches a year, which is from 10 to 25 percent more than in most of the eastern parts of the United States but much less than in many tropical countries. It is fairly evenly distributed over the island, ranging from about 36 inches to 70 inches, is slightly heavier on the north coast than on the south coast, and is still heavier in the interior. The western end of the island also has somewhat heavier rainfall than the eastern end.

The most important consideration with respect to rainfall is the seasonal distribution,. with wet summers and dry winters. The rainy season usually begins about the middle of May and lasts through October. June and September are the wettest months. About threefourths of the yearly rain usually occurs in the 6 summer months. The other 6 months, November to April (la seca), are relatively dry, with only about one-fourth of the yearly rain.

Another climatic factor worthy of mention is that Cuba lies in the midst of the hurricane belt. Fortunately, hurricanes do not occur frequently and commonly pass just to the north or to the south of the island. However, they occur during the late summer, from July to

October, when they are most likely to cause considerable damage to crops.

FORESTS

The most striking and beautiful features of the Cuban landscape are the ever-present palm trees. The tall, straight royal palms with long plumelike leaves from the top grow in all parts of the island except where the soil is very poor and in the mountains. The large trunk of the palm tree is pulpy and has practically no value for lumber or fuel; but the tree bears clusters of tiny kernels, which have a high oil content and are used extensively as feed for hogs. Furthermore, the large leaves and broad flat leaf stems, or sheathing petioles, are very useful to Cuban farmers. The leaves are used for making thatched roofs and the sheaths as siding on buildings and as covering for tobacco bales.

Cuba's forest resources have been very severely reduced in the last 50 years. Originally they covered almost the entire island, but now they are insufficient to supply domestic needs. Early records indicate that tropical forests covered not only the mountainous regions, but also the river valleys and coastal plains with such woods as mahogany, Spanish cedar, ebony, granadillo (red ebony), pine, majagua, and many other varieties suitable for fine lumber, as well as for tanning and fiber. Only the most rocky and arid regions were without trees.

In the early history of the country its forest resources were depleted to a considerable extent by cutting large quantities of lumber for shipment to Spain, but the severest destruction occurred through the rapid expansion of the sugar industry in the early twenties after the World War. The clearing process was extremely wasteful; forests were cut, and most of the wood was burned on the ground as soon as it became dry. The irony of the situation is that most of the land on which the forests were thus destroyed was not well adapted or actually needed or used for sugar production and now lies barren. In many regions of the island, the shortage of forested land is so severe that farmers lack wood for fuel and for other farm uses.

It was estimated that in 1919, according to the census of that year, there still remained about 13 million acres of forests, covering nearly one-half of Cuba's total area. By 1940, the forests were reduced to such an extent that the remaining area was variously estimated at from 3 to 3.5 million acres, or only about one-fourth as much as in 1919. Forests now cover only 10 to 15 percent of Cuba's total land area and are principally located in inaccessible regions that are quite unsuited for agricultural production. It is estimated that two-thirds of the present forests are in mountainous areas, nearly one-fourth in hilly areas, and about one-tenth in swampy areas.

As a result of the forest depletion, Cuba is no longer an exporter of lumber and is not even producing sufficient lumber to meet domestic needs. It is estimated that more than 40 percent of the wood consumed in Cuba for industrial purposes has to be imported. During recent years the value of lumber imports, almost entirely from the United States, averaged about $1,370,000 annually, in addition to semimanufactured wood products valued at about $760,000, whereas exports amounted to only about $400,000.

The total sales of products from Cuba's forests in 1939 are reported as follows:

Whereas the price of lumber per board foot averaged 4.5 cents, some kinds were valued as low as 1.5 cents and others, such as mahogany and Spanish cedar, as high as 7 cents per board foot.

Charcoal is one of Cuba's most important forest products, with sales in 1939 valued at nearly 2 million dollars. It is prepared by small farmers in mountainous and swampy forest regions (fig. 4), and is used in the cities as the principal fuel for cooking instead of imported coal. For this purpose, it has the advantage of being easily transported, as it is lighter than wood, and may be burned in open fires without smoke or soot.

Cuba is confronted with two great problems in connection with forest policy: (1) The preservation of existing forests to prevent further wholesale destruction, and (2) extensive reforestation to put much of the present wasteland back into forest production. Many kinds of forest trees, including valuable hardwoods, grow well in Cuba; and because of freedom from frost, the growing season continues throughout the year. Recent experimental plantings of teakwood indicate that it is also well adapted to Cuba. Cuba is estimated to have from 3 to 4 million acres of nonagricultural land suitable for forestry. This area would permit doubling the present forests.

MINERALS

Cuba has deposits of a number of important minerals. Exports of minerals during recent years (1937-40) have ranged from 4.6 to 7.2 million dollars annually but have constituted only 3 or 4 percent of the total value of all exports. Most important are ores of manganese, chromium, and copper. Those of lesser importance are iron, barytes, gold, and asphalt. Cuba has been the second largest producer of manganese in Latin America and the fourth largest producer of copper. Iron-ore deposits are extensive and accessible but have not been widely developed. A large plant for recovering nickel from lowgrade ore is being constructed. By 1942 the production of the strategic minerals manganese and chromium had been greatly increased. The following tabulation shows the average quantity and value of minerals exported annually in 1937-40:

Fuel is Cuba's greatest deficiency. The island has practically no coal or petroleum, and consumption requirements of these two groups of products must therefore be obtained from abroad. There are a few shallow oil wells (naptha), with total production estimated at less than 2 million gallons (10). Imports of coal and coke amount to about 300,000 tons a year, with a value of 1 to 1.5 million dollars. Imports of petroleum, mostly crude but including some refined products, amount to about 700,000 tons a year, valued at about 6 million dollars. Nearly all the coal and about half the crude oil are obtained from the United States.

ISLE OF PINES

The Isle of Pines is located about 66 miles (by boat) directly south from the west-central part of Cuba but is only about 33 miles from the

nearest mainland in the Province of Pinar del Río. For political purposes, it is included in the Province of La Habana. It covers an area of 755,000 acres and in 1938 had a population of 10,165. This island is about 34 miles across from north to south, and 40 miles at its greatest length from east to west. A marsh running across the island from east to west divides it into two parts.

The land is predominantly flat and gently rolling, with a few scattered hills and a low tidal mangrove swamp along the coast. Most of the northern part of the island has an elevation of less than 250 feet, but the southern part is more swampy, at no point exceeding 50 feet above sea level. Only the northern part is suitable for farming. Soils, generally similar to those in Florida, are predominantly sandy, with gray, yellow, and brown surface color. Natural vegetation in

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the northern part is wiregrass, palmetto, and pines, and in the southern part, tropical hardwoods. Fertility is relatively low, but excellent citrus fruits and winter vegetables for export are produced in the northern part through the application of commercial fertilizer and some irrigation.

MANUFACTURING AND TRANSPORTATION

With the exception of sugar, Cuba's manufacturing enterprises are not large but have been increasing during recent years under the stimulus of tariff protection. The total value of Cuba's industrial production, excluding sugar and related agricultural products, was reported to be 64 million dollars in 1939 as compared with 50 million dollars in 1938. About 32,000 people were employed in these industries in 1939.

Among the industrial products made primarily from domestic raw materials are sugar, molasses, sirups, rum, alcohol, cigars, cigarettes, rope and twine, jerked beef, dairy products, canned fruits, furniture, cement, brick, tile, and sponges. Among those made principally from imported raw materials are paint, soap, perfumes, toilet preparations, shoes, hats, hoisery, other clothing, knit goods, cotton piece goods, blankets, towels, paper and cardboard, tin cans, aluminum ware, and matches (16).

Cuba has all the usual methods of transportation but a great deficiency in farm roads. Railways connect most of the towns and sugar centrals in Cuba. (See fig. 5.) They are privately owned, consisting of 20 public-carrier companies and about 165 smaller private railways owned by the sugar centrals. Nearly two-thirds of the freight hauled on the public-carrier railways consists of sugarcane, and nearly one-fourth consists of sugar products. The sugar industry thus accounts for a total of 88 percent. The average freight rate is 2.5 cents per ton-mile and the average passenger rate is about 2.1 cents per mile.

The backbone of Cuba's system of public roads is the central highway, a hard-surfaced road 713 miles long, extending from Pinar del Río through Habana to Santiago de Cuba (fig. 6). In addition there are estimated to be about 1,400 miles of other roads suitable for automobiles and 1,500 miles suitable only for carts.9 Bus routes connect nearly all the principal towns and villages, except those lying along the coast beyond the mountains.10 Transportation by automobile is difficult except on the central highway and a few other year-round roads. This fact, together with the low income of Cuban farmers, limits transportation in rural areas almost entirely to carts and horseback.

ORGANIZATION OF AGRICULTURE

Agriculture is Cuba's most important industry, engaging about onehalf of the gainfully employed population and accounting for over 90 percent of the country's total export. Cuba's agriculture is

7 From a report by the U. S. Consulate General in Habana, based on information supplied by the Cuban Ministry of Agriculture.

In 1940 there were 3,735 miles of public-carrier railways, in addition to about 7,200 miles of sugar-company railways. AMERICAN CONSULATE GENERAL. GENERAL INFORMATION CONCERNING THE REPUBLIC OF CURA. [2] pp. Havana. 1941.

10 There were 2,847 busses registered, 13,890 trucks in service, and about 17,000 private automobiles at the end of 1940. The total number of automotive vehicles registered on December 31, 1941, was 49,541.