such disasters are more frequent in times of heavy traffic and when men are overworked and so tired that their faculties are not as alert as usual. At such times the chances are that something will be neglected which is essential to safe operation, and it is then that an automatic device, if reliable, would prove valuable. It may be objected that an automatic lowwater detector for locomotives has not been designed, but we have sufficient confidence in the ability of the concerns which manufacture automatic lubricators, injectors and such fixtures to feel certain that they would soon meet a demand for such an apparatus, and we commend it to their attention as well as to the attention of railroads. that many of the Winans boilers exploded, as simply an incident, it suggests that all but this was due largely to poor material and workmanship, rather than to the slope of the firebox. We suggest to any roads that have not given this subject particular attention that they draw on the longitudinal sections of the various fireboxes horizontal lines one inch and two inches below the crown and then make a table of the slope in inches per foot and the number of square inches of sheet exposed by such a water line, and they will be surprised at the miscellaneous showing revealed. On existing engines no change can easily be made, but those having too light a slope should have the water glass and gauge cocks so arranged that a greater height of water will cover the highest point of the crown sheet when water first shows in the glass and is indicated by the gauge. The three safeguards for detecting low water are the gauge glass, the gauge cocks and safety plugs. The practice in loca tion of gauge cocks with respect to crown sheet is quite as various as the angle of slope of the sheet and on many roads would bear investigation with profit. The same may be said of gauge cocks; and these are often affected by mud and scale, which interfere with their correct indications. Safety plugs are the only form of automatic low water detectors which have been used on locomotives, and although many forms have been devised and filled with various alloys the best of them are far from satisfactory. The top of the plug often becomes covered with a hard scale, and even a thin coating of this material is sufficient to resist a high pressure and will prevent water from flowing through when the alloy is melted. Again, the alloy itself after long exposure to intense heat, changes its character and the melting point is so high that it will not liquefy when water is too low. Automatic low-water detectors operated mechanically have been used successfully on sta tionary boilers, and it might be seriously questioned why such a device should not be used on the boilers of our large modern locomotives. The earning capacity of such engines is so great that their proper protection from explosions due to the most frequent cause certainly warrants an expenditure greater than that for a smaller engine, and more than the insignificant cost of the unreliable safety plugs. The Locomotive has recently shown by tables a close relation in numbers between locomotive boiler explosions and railroad collisions, and while this must be regarded To summarize, we believe that the danger of explosion of locomotive boilers woudl be lessened by using a greater slope in the crown sheet than is now generally employed, in order to secure a greater depth of water on the sheet. More attention should be given to the location of gauge glasses and gauge cocks with respect to crown sheets, and some standard should be established for the slope of crown sheets in inches per foot and for the location of the gauges. The subject would be a good one for a report to the Master Mechanics' Association, as the illustration of boilers in the proceedings of that body shows quite a various practice, and one must be better than the others. A simple automatic low-water alarm should be experimented with by some of the more progressive roads, and the use of such a device in practice would soon lead to the invention of such a successful apparatus that it would in time get into general use.-Railway Age. Starving Injectors. It is not unusual for a large locomotive injector to throw 3,500 to 4,500 gallons of water into a locomotive boiler in an hour and yet such delivery is expected to be provided for through pipes no larger than were formerly used in connection with injectors which would deliver but 2,000 gallons in that time. While great progress has been made in connection with other parts of locomotives, the injector connections have not been given the attention which they deserve and the locomotive has fairly outgrown them. In many cases the old standards have remained the same for about twenty years, notwithstanding the fact that locomotives have been more than doubled in capacity in that time. With increased boiler capacity and high steam pressure it is necessary to use injectors which will deliver a great deal more water than that which formerly sufficed, and the time has come for a radical change in this practice. the automobile, however, a means has presented itself of placing these thoroughfares in better communication with other portions of the city. The systems of transportation to which we refer may be regarded as a combination of the electric car and the omnibus, for the vehicles derive their motive power from an overhead current, but do not run on steel rails. There seems to be no reason why at least 3-inch smooth-bore hose should Two such systems of electric trolley not be used to connect with the tender omnibuses have been proposed. One bears tank. With this a free opening of 2% the name of its inventor, Mr. Max Schieinches may be obtained in the fitting. A mann, and is exploited by Siemens & Halstrainer at the valve in the tank well may ske, of Berlin, and the other is known be used and the conical strainer in the as the Lombard-Gerin system. The pipe removed. This would permit of using Schiemann system has been operated on much larger channels for the water to the a line extending from Konigstein-Hutton great relief of the injectors. through the romantic valley of the Biela. The length of the line was originally 2.8 kilometers, but it has been extended nine kilometers, and now operates between Konigstein-Hutton and Konigsbrunn. The roads are very good, so that a speed of twelve kilometers per hour is easily maintained. Auto-omnibuses, motor-cars, and trailer cars are used, the first being employed for the transportation of light express matter and the latter for the hauling of coal and the like. Steering is effected by means of the front wheels of the first car of a train, since it has been found that the wheels of the second car will track after those of the first. The trolleys employed have a sliding contact, one trolley being placed at each end of the bus or motor car. It is not enough to enlarge the suction side alone, the delivery pipes and checks also appear to need attention. The duplex check fitting supplied by the Brooks Works, which is shown in many locomotive engravings in this journal, seems to be a very good device, because it delivers all the water on one side of the boiler, which seems to be better practice than to enter it in two places and in two directions. This, however, is not the main point of this criticism. The free and unobstructed opening for the water is what is needed. A check that will lift but 1-16 inch for a No. 10 injector connected by a 24-inch pipe is not sufficient, yet this has been found in a recently built locomotive. Such an injector needs at least an even equivalent to a 2-inch hole. In one of the reports presented to the Master Mechanics' Association last June the following suggestions oc cur: "As the water evaporation is heavy, a good inlet from tank to injector should be provided. A majority of the manufacturers prefer the following sizes of feed-pipe in connection with the different-sized injectors: In passing an ordinary conveyance the omnibus is simply steered to the right or to the left a possible distance of about three meters from the trolley line. In passing another omnibus coming in an opposite direction, it is of course necessary, under the circumstances, to remove the trolley poles from one conveyance while the other moves along. The motor-cars used to haul the freight trailers weigh four tons each and have a carrying capac "No. 8, not less than 2 inches inter- ity of one ton. Each trail car weighs nal diameter. 1.5 tons empty and 5 tons loaded, from "Nos. 9 and 10, not less than 22 which it follows that the total weight of inches internal diameter. "Nos. 11 and 12, not less than 3 inches internal diameter."-American Engine and Railroad Journal. the loaded trains is 10 tons. The seating capacity of an omnibus is about twenty-six persons. The cost of construction is about $800 per kilometer. With the Lombard-Gerin system, readers of the Scientific American are not un Electric Trolley Wagons and Om- familiar. The system utilizes two over nibuses. The peculiar character of the streets of many German and French cities renders it often impossible to install electric tramway systems. With the development of head wires; one positive and one negative. Instead of driving the vehicles entirely by motors connected up with the axle, an auxiliary device called an "automotor trolley" is used which runs along the overhead wires. In other words, the vehicles are towed along by a self-propelled motor trolley. The towing trolley is driven by a 3-phase induction motor suspended between two conducting trolley-wires. The motor is carried in a frame which also has bearings for the two trolley-wheels. Motion is communicated to the trolley-wheels by the revolving field of the motor. The current is fed to the trolley motor from the omnibus motor, which latter may be regarded as a combined rotary transformer and direct current motor. The trolley motor travels with a speed somewhat in excess of that of the car itself. From this peculiar arrangement of causing it to lead the way, as it were, the Frenchmen have termed the auto-trolley "the blind man's dog." The Lombard-Gerin system has been tried on a line extending from the village of Samois to Fontainebleau, a distance of about five kilometers. On this line the car or omnibus is driven by a double motor operating at a tension of 500 volts direct current. The time taken for the journey is about twenty minutes. The total energy used is 543 kilowatt hours or 64 kilowatt hours per car kilometer. It is stated that the low expense of equipment for a line of this character renders it of particular value for country districts, where an expensive track construction would be prohibitive on account of the small amount of traffic. The Compagnie de Traction par Trolley Automoteur gives the ratio of expense to receipts as 58 per cent. and quotes the following as the expense of operation for this kind of line: The electrical energy, at 25 centimes per kilowatt hour, amounts to 1,355 francs on 25 centimes, or 0.161 centime per car kilometer. The repair expenses of the carriages are given as about 776 francs, or 0.092 centime per car kilometer; and the working of the omnibuses with one man per vehicle is given as 456 francs, or 0.054 centime per car kilo meter; while the general expenses amount to 307 francs and 55 centimes, or 0.036 centime per car kilometer. This makes a total expense of 2,895 francs or 0.343 centime per car kilometer.-Scientific American. A Great Sea Wall for Galveston. Galveston today, while having a few scars left from the storm of September 8, 1900, to a stranger it seems as fair and bright as ever. Never before has the say ing that "A touch of nature makes the whole world kin" been more fully exemplified than in the case of this beautiful city. Her people have grown accustomed to rocking along in their easy way, which comes from a long habitation in a warm climate, leaving the work of progress in the hands of a few. When the skies cleared after that fatal September day, it shone upon a stunned people for a few hours, but then there awoke in the breast of every one the fact that the work to be done could not be left to a few, but all must unite in one common cause: helping the destitute and suffering and the clearing up of our city, and let the world see that, far from being a crushed and frightened city, they were worthy of their most generous liberality, which the world at large were so kindly bestowing upon them in their distress. As one united people they worked; yes, worked as none but those who had passed through it can tell, and even they do not realize what a tremendous undertaking they had. All of self was forgotten, and the only idea that permeated every brain was the duty to perform. After clearing away all scars they turned their attention to thoughts of protection from any repetition of such a disaster. The question of a sea wall had long been talked of, but never brought to a focus, for lack of funds. It was decided that funds must be had and ways and maens devised for full protection. The most noted engineers of the United States were brought here to formulate plans, and they, after weeks of careful consideration and study, submitted plans for a sea wall to extend around the gulf side of the city, as no damage ever comes from the bay. Then came the question of funds. Provision was asked of our State to permit the county to vote upon the issue of $1,500,000 bonds for building this sea wall. An election was held and resulted in only twenty-two dissenting votes in the entire county. Preparations were begun at once to issue these bonds, and her own citizens came forward and liberally subscribed for $1,250,000 to show their confidence. Not only did the rich subscribe for these bonds, but all classes added their mite; and the laboring man, supporting his family by daily labor, came forward to do his share by subscribing, making monthly payments until they were entirely paid up. Money sure, a competent engineer was employed for drawing up plans and specifications and superintending and letting of contract, and the building of the wall. The contract has been let at a cost of $1,294,735, wall to be completed within fifteen months. The work is now well under way; pilings are being driven for the foundations. The sea wall will be of solid concrete, 3% miles long, 16 feet high, 16 feet at the base and 5 feet at the top. This will be backed up by 100 feet sand filling for protection, and twentyseven feet of rock filling in front of the sea wall to protect it from undermining. For 35 feet back of the wall will be a brick walk and driveway, the balance of the embankment covered with grass. the only way in which this can be done Steamers. To give some idea of the immensity of this construction will say, it will require 9,990 cars of piling; 5,200 cars of concrete; 100,000 tons of rock and 120 tons of re-enforcement rods. That the city may be raised to give proper drainage, an additional security, Galveston will ask the Wireless Telegraph Calls on Ocean next Legislature to permit them to use the State's proportion of the city taxes for fifteen years for this purpose. If the State grants this request, bonds will be issued, secured by this taxation, and the sale of bonds will make the money available for the filling at once. This work will take some time, but it is expected that this can be done within the next three years. It is considered that this permission to use their taxes will be a good investment for the State from the fact that it will materially increase the taxable values of the city, and after the expiration of fifteen years this increase will be a decided source of profit to the State.-The Tradesman. Railway Operation vs. Railway Speculation. We have often referred in these columns to the essential difference between railroad operation and railroad speculation, which are too often confounded in the minds of those who glibly discuss railroad questions. The New York Commercial hits the nail on the head when it says, "It is necessary only to compare the representative railroad managers of today with those who were in control of the principal railroads thirty or forty years ago, to realize the complete change which has occurred in the character and aims of the managements of the railroads. The railroads of the country at present are under the management of experts who understand the theory as well as practice. Their sole aim is to place the properties under their control on a permanently profitable basis, and they realize that It is a common thing nowadays to have one of the telegraph operators employed on the great ocean liners relate that during certain trips of the steamer he was in constant communication with the land and passing steamers during the entire passage across the ocean. It will interest our readers to learn that each steamer has its call the same as every telegraph office. Thus, the call for the steamer Kronprinz Wilhelm, is K. P., and the call for the steamer Philadelphia of the American Line, is P. H., and the other steamers equipped with the Marconi system have calls suggestive of their names. The telegraph operator sits at his instrument during the voyage and when he notices that his instrument is vibrating, he at once opens his key and says, for instance, "Who is it?" and then signs his call. If the vessels are going in opposite directions they will be in communication with each other from four to twenty-four hours, but if the vessels are going in the same direction it often happens that they are in communication with each other during the entire trip across the Atlantic and until the vessels are actually docked.-Telegraph Age. Burdened With Prosperity. It makes little difference how much traffic increases from now on, the roads can not handle any more busness promptly than the volume they are now moving until they are able to secure more locomotives. Every one of the large lines is seriously short of this kind of equipment, and the situation is not improving. There is a good deal of congestion at some of the lake ports, where business is piling up from the steamship lines. Some of the boats which have taken freight for Ohio ports with a view of transferring it to the railroads for points inland, have been unable to unload be cause the roads could not furnish cars. It is hard to see how the West is going to be relieved promptly in hard coal supplies unless the roads are able to secure additional motive power. All the ore cars that can be spared from northern Michigan and Wisconsin are being hurried to the coal fields with the view of helping out the work of distribution as fast as the coal can be mined. All of the roads running to the South are finding a good deal of difficulty in taking care of the business that presents itself. The general rate situation on all the Eastern and Southern lines is very satisfactory.-International Railway Journal. Discipline That Hurts, Railroad officials as a rule wish to treat their men fairly, but a great deal of injustice is inflicted on account of rules of discipline framed to inflict punishment for offenses and delinquencies, without providing credit for efficient service and good behavior. If there is to be a debit account maintained against a man, there certainly ought in justice be a credit account as well. The Brown system of "discipline without suspension" has been adopted by many roads in a modified form, and in some quarters it is much more unpopular than the old style of punishment, when a man was suspended for any serious violation of rules with the understanding that the punishment condoned the offense. The system, as worked under Mr. Brown, was eminently a just way to manage men, as the credits were always liable to overbalance the debits; but the people who modified the system have, as a rule, modified out nearly all the credits. There was a time when a petty officer would go through a division like a roaring lion, discharging men right and left for of fenses that were due to his own incapability. The Brown system cuts the teeth of this kind of tyrant, but it is only half acting when it permits him to put a debit against a man without providing a system of credits. Where this is done, it is only a matter of time when sufficient debits will be recorded against first-class men to have them discharged. A half acting system of this kind has depleted some roads of their best men, many of them having resigned before their time was due for discharge. On such roads the men look back longingly to the "good old days" when a superintendent suffering from a toothache would discipline with his tongue every man who came within reach of his voice, and there the end of the castigation would be. It is easier to stand a little unjust abuse than to feel day after day that a silent record is being built up against you from trifles that will soon bring ignominious discharge.-Railway and Locomotive Engineering. Discipline. The question of discipline among railroad employes has been discussed quite vigorously during the past month both at a meeting of the New York Railroad Club and in several railroad papers. It is an old, almost threadbare subject, as shiny as the dress suit of the oldest inhabitant. Yet it has a perennial freshness. Some advocate the Brown system and think that black marks will serve the best purpose if they culminate in discharge. Others ridicule that system and think it far better to punish the men that break the rules with a penalty which reaches his income. Everybody agrees that the purpose of discipline is not penal but redemptive. The object of it is not to cause the violator of the rules to suffer but to prevent a recurrence of the forgetfulness, carelessness, or negligence. The penalty is to be judged by the results. Does it stop or lessen the disregard of rules? If it does, it is successful; if it does not, it is a failure. We are of the opinion that the human element enters into the question of discipline to such a large extent that no ironclad rule or system can be expected to work equally well with all men. The man who is sensitive and whose feelings are easily hurt will be benefitted by a sharp reproof or by "marks" against him. Another, stolid, nerveless, dull, with a hide as thick as an African rhinoceros, could only be reached by a summary "ten days to think it over." In all cases it makes a vast difference who imposes the penalty. If it happens to be a man who is disliked the person who pays it will feel and perhaps show resentment. If there is a suspicion of unfairness it will only provoke ill will, but if the punishment is made to "fit the crime" and the |