are unknown; the trees are covered with perpetual verdure, and the various periods of flower and fruit in different plants are the chief indieations of season. The mean temperature varies from seventy to eighty degrees; the heat of summer is oppressive to the natives, and dangerous to strangers; exposure to the sun in the middle of the day is hazardous for both. Those districts which are nearly at the level of the sea, are still more subject to the noxious effluvia which we have described in the warm regions; and are annually visited by that dreadful scourge of hot climates, the malignant bilious or yellow fever. Few strangers who visit these countries in the hottest season escape the disease, although many survive its attacks. On the coast of Mexico it is not uncommon for a traveller to experience a fatal attack, merely in passing from the high country to embark for Europe.

151. The insular situation of the West Indies of course modifies their climate, as will be fully described under that head. The continent itself in this portion is so generally elevated above the level of the sea, that it has every variety of climate from that we have been describing to that of the temperate regions. Immediately above the Tierras Calientes, or hot regions of the coasts, we find on the declivity of the table-land the Tierras Templadas or temperate regions, commencing at the height of 4000 or 5000 feet. A soft spring temperature perpetually reigns here, which never varies more than eight or ten degrees; the mean annual temperature is sixtyeight or seventy, corresponding to that of the regions last described; the extremes of heat and cold are equally unknown, and the malignant fever never reaches the borders of these favoured tracts: they are only incommoded by frequent thick fogs, in consequence of this being the usual elevation of the clouds. At the height of 7000 feet the Tierras Frias or cool regions commence, which extend over the table-land; the mean temperature is less than sixty-two degrees, or corresponds to that of Rome; it is rare that the thermometer falls below the freezing point; the winters are as mild as at Naples, having a mean heat of from fifty-five to seventy degrees; in summer the thermometer in the shade never rises above seventy-five. Some districts of limited extent rise still higher than this, and experience a severity of cold which is disagreeable and unfavourable to vegetation.

152. With regard to the country near the sources of the Rio del Norte, it is observed by Pike, that no person accustomed to reside in the temperate climate of thirty-six and thirty-seven degrees of north latitude, in the United States, can form any idea of the piercing cold in that parallel in New Mexico; but the air is serene, and unaccompanied by damps and fogs, as it rains but once in the year, and some years not at all. It is a mountainous country. The grand dividing ridges, which separate the waters of the Rio del Norte from those of California, border it on the line of its western limits, and are covered in some places with eternal snows, which give a keenness to the air that could not be calculated upon nor expected in a temperate zone.'

The prevalent winds of North America are

from the north-east and north-west, sweeping between the chain of mountains, and in the same directions. The south-west appears to be next in frequency, produced in part by the re-action of the atmosphere after the preceding. The north-easterly winds are usually loaded with cold vapours, and are peculiarly piercing. The westerly and north-westerly winds are generally dry, and produce a clear and invigorating state of the air. The south-westerly winds are of course warm; and, as they bring the vapours of the gulf of Mexico, they render the atmosphere moist, producing rain in winter, and a sultry heat in summer. The frequent alternations of these winds produce the sudden and unwholesome changes so much complained of in the American climates.

153. The quantity of rain is greater than in those countries of Europe which have the same mean temperature; but, in consequence of its falling more rapidly, the number of clear days is generally greater than in any country of Europe north of the Alps and west of Russia. These facts will be seen on the examination of comparative tables.

The following table shows the quantity of rain which falls annually, in a number of places on both continents, arranged according to the amount.

Washington Council Bluffs Missouri River Florida Pittsburg

59 236 73 40 257 68 65 210 55 154. VEGETABLES.-A continent embracing such a variety of soil and climate of elevation and exposure, can scarcely be deficient in any important vegetable production. Some of its native plants have become articles of necessity in Europe; as maize potatoes, and tobacco. Almost all civilized nations use its cotton for clothing. Every species of grain which has been brought from Europe flourishes as well as in its original soil. Rice is as fine as in the East Indies. Garden vegetables are reared with great ease, and in abundance. In the tropical regions of Mexico, the banana and the manioc or cassava have been from time immemorial the chief support of the inhabitants; and the maguey furnished the Mexicans with a substitute for wine; while it supplied them with materials for ropes, cloth, and paper. Every species of fruit is reared on this continent in the highest perfection; in short, nothing is wanting in the vegetable world to render it independent of all other countries, except some of the finest spices and tea; while immense supplies of vegetable food and clothing, and other useful products, are sent abroad. It abounds also with natural meadows, which rear cattle almost without attention from the herdsman; and in some districts immense herds have sprung from those which escaped from European settlements.

155. America surpasses other quarters of the globe in the variety and size of its trees, and the grandeur of its forests. There are 137 species of trees in North America, whose height exceeds thirty feet; while in Europe scarely forty-five attain this height. Of seventy-four known species of the oak, forty belong to North America. Sixteen of these are found in Mexico; the remainder in the more northern portions of the continent, extending to latitude fifty or fifty five degrees north. The live oak, which is found on the southern portion of the coast of the United States, from Virginia to the Mississippi, is scarcely inferior to the teak-tree of India for ship-building. It is chiefly on the islands, and seldom extends more than fifteen or twenty miles from the shore. The white oak, which abounds in the middle United States, and attains the height of seventy or eighty feet, is most used and valued of all the species for common purposes. Several other kinds yield a bark which is much used in dyeing; and is exported for this purpose in considerable quantities.

156. There are fourteen species of the pine and spruce tree, extending through every degree of latitude, and in great abundance. They furnish valuable timber in large quantities for masts and spars as well as for building; and several species are very valuable for the turpentine, pitch, and tar, which are manufactured from them. The white pine is the most magnificent; often towering to the height of 100 or 150 feet. It flourishes in the northern and mountainous regions of the United States, and in Canada.

157. The cedar, which is so much valued for its odour and durability, grows on the southern borders of the United States. The sugar maple, which furnishes good sugar in considerable quantity, is abundant in the northern and middle United States, and is also found in Canada and Nova Scotia. The chestnut and walnut are common, and produce fine nuts. The cherry, mulberry, and crab-apple, are also natives of North America. The cherry, and some species of the maple and bay tree, furnish valuable woods for ornamental purposes. The magnolia combines the grandeur of a forest tree, with the beauty and fragrance of a flowering shrub; and the bay is scarcely less conspicuous for beauty. The birch, beech, elm, and other common forest trees, abound in their customary latitudes; and there are many species of inferior value which are peculiar to this continent. The forests of America supply some of its most valuable articles of commerce. The timber and lumber of various kinds, formed from the oak and pine, are exported in large quantities. The potash and pearl-ash, produced in clearing and burning the forests preparatory to cultivation, are also important articles of trade. The pine forests, especially of the southern states, furnish a large supply of naval stores to the countries of Europe.

158. ANIMALS.-The quadrupeds of America are far from exhibiting those symptoms of degeneracy, when compared with the same species on the eastern continent, which Buffon imagined was a necessary result of the inferiority of the new world. The immense skeletons of the mastodon, usually termed the mamnoth, discovered in the western states, indicate that the continent was once the residence of animals not less majestic or powerful than the elephant. The beasts of prey are as numerous, and those of the same species as fierce as those of the old continent. But no portion of the continent appears to present any rival to the lion of Africa, and the tiger of Bengal. The brown bear of Missouri rivals or surpasses that of the Alps in strength and ferocity; and indeed is thought to be surpassed by no beast of prey in power and courage. Other species of the bear resemble those of Europe. Various species of the wolf are found, which exhibit a great degree of sagacity and courage. It is supposed that animals of this species were tamed and employed by the Indians in hunting in the place of dogs.

159. The cougouar, a native animal, called also the American panther, resembles the panther of Asia and Africa in shape. It is occasionally seen in every part of the continent, with different varieties of form and colour; and is possessed of considerable strength and courage. The catamount is next in size to the cougouar. It is a strong and ferocious animal, and, like the cougouar, often leaps upon the neck of cattle and deer, and destroys them by tearing open the veins of the neck, while it is secure from the rage of the animal it attacks. There are four species of the lynx or wild cat, which were formerly very numerous, but, in common with other beasts of prey, have been almost destroyed or driven back into the wilderness of the interior by the progress of population. The wolverine and the kingajow

are smaller carnivorous animals, with habits similar to those of the cougouar and catamount. 160. The skins and fur of these animals are valuable, especially that of the bear. There are several species of the fox, designated by names derived from their colour-red, grey, &c.: the fur is very useful; and that of the black fox is among the most valuable furs. The ermine is also found in the northern United States. The badger or carcajou, weasel, marten, and several species of otter, are common in North America, and add to the supply of furs. The racoon is an active sagacious animal, resembling the fox in size and shape, and producing a coarse fur. The skunk or pole-cat is a small animal which defends itself from its pursuers by emitting a fluid of the most disgusting odour, which renders any thing on which it falls so offensive that it cannot be used until a length of time has elapsed.

161. The American forests abound with the various species of squirrels. Seven species were observed by Lewis and Clark, west of the Mississippi river. The flying squirrel is a small but beautiful animal, remarkable for a membrane two or three inches broad, extending from the fore to the hind legs, on each side of the body, which it uses to aid its progress and sustain its weight in leaping from tree to tree. Rabbits are also numerous; but the European hare has not been discovered. The American marmot, known under the names of the wood-chuck or groundhog, is about the size of a rabbit, but more resembling a rat in its form: it burrows like the rabbit; and is hunted for its flesh and fur.

162. The Missouri marmot or Prairie dog is found in great numbers in the Missouri country, and is remarkable for its singular habits. These animals live in families, and burrow to a considerable depth. The sites of their towns are generally on the brow of a hill near some stream or pond, but sufficiently elevated to escape inundation. They sometimes extend over two or three square miles. Their holes descend in a spiral form, and to such a depth, that it is impossible to drive them out. In approaching one of their settlements, you are saluted on all sides by the cry of wish-ton-wish, uttered in a shrill piercing manner, like the bark of a small dog, from which the Indian name of the animal is copied. At this signal they all retreat to the entrance of their burrows, and post themselves in watchful attention to your motions. It is remarkable that their towns are infested with rattle-snakes to such a degree, as to render it dangerous to pass through them. The jerboa of Canada is a little animal of the mouse kind, which frequents the meadows and corn-fields as well as the forest, remarkable for its rapid jumping motion. The Canada rat is distinguished by a pouch on each side of its mouth for the reception and preservation of food. The opossum is an animal about as large as a cat, remarkable for the mode of producing and rearing its young. At their birth they are extremely small, and remain concealed in a pouch under the belly, attached to the teats, as if they were inanimate. When somewhat grown, they appear occasionally at the opening of the

pouch; and after they are able to run about they retreat to it in time of danger, and are protected or carried off by the mother. The opossum is remarkable for its tenacity of life: its flesh is very palatable. There are four species of the deer, differing in several particulars from the European. They are found in great numbers in those parts of the country which are still covered with wood. The elk and the moose are large animals, resembling the deer in many points; but distinguished by their superior strength and greater weight.

163. The most valuable domestic animals, the horse, the ox, the ass, the sheep, the dog, are not natives of the new continent; but they have been introduced from Europe, and are now found in all parts of the continent. Immense herds of wild horses traverse the plains west of the Mississippi; and the wild cattle of South America are hunted merely for the hides. A peculiar species of sheep, differing from the domestic animal, is found among the Chippewan mountains. The goat is seen in large herds on the plains of the Missouri.

164. The plains west of the Mississippi also abound with herds of the bison, or American wild ox, whose flesh and skin form the principal support of the Indian tribes. The bison were formerly abundant even on the sea-coast of North America; but have constantly retired as the population advanced, and are now only found beyond the Ohio and Mississippi. Thousands are sometimes seen feeding together. The muskox is found in the higher latitudes of this continent. Of the amphibious animals, the seal is found upon the north-west coast, and the seaelephant in the seas on the north and east. the coast of Mexico is the manati, or sea-cow, whose flesh resembles that of the ox. The beaver is found through the whole breadth of the continent; and exhibits the most surprising ingenuity and sagacity in the construction of its cabin and provision for its support and safety.

On

165. The following table will show the fallacy of the opinion, that the animals of the new continent are inferior to those of the old. The first column exhibits the weight of several species of quadrupeds in Europe, as given by Buffon; and the second shows the weight of the same animal in Vermont, as given by Dr. Williams, whose authority is unquestionable.

166. The birds of North America present every variety of beautiful plumage and exquisite colours, and every form and size, from the soaring powerful eagle and the screaming vulture to the gaudy paroquet, and the exquisite miniature of the kind-the humming bird. Some have a fine note; and the mocking-bird is remarkable for its imitation of every species of song. The game and wild fowl are abundant, including pheasants, snipes, wild geese and wild ducks of several kinds, and the wild turkey, which is esteemed the greatest luxury of the kind. The reptiles are less numerous. The rattle-snake is distinguished for its habit of giving previous notice of its attacks; and this circumstance, with the slowness of its movements, renders it far less dangerous than is generally imagined. The scorpion is found in the hot countries near the tropics. America is celebrated for the number of its venomous insects, which are indeed a serious evil in the marshy, and especially the hot districts. The sea-coast is amply supplied with fish; and the banks of Newfoundland are the storehouse of cod fish for all Europe. The lakes and rivers abound with many peculiar species of great delicacy.

167. MINERALS.-North America embraces every species of geological formation, and therefore we may expect it to contain almost every variety of useful and beautiful minerals. It is well known that Mexico furnishes two-thirds of the whole amount of silver annually extracted from the globe. Gold is also found in Mexico and the United States in considerable abundance; copper and lead are abundant; and North America is proverbially a land of wood and iron, the first necessary to convert the last to useful purposes. Tin and mercury are found in Mexico, and zinc in many parts of the continent. The demand has not yet led to sufficient care in searching for the other less important metals.

168. The secondary region, which occupies the central portion of the continent, and the more limited districts of the same character on the coast, abound with coal, salt, and lime-those articles of prime necessity which could not without difficulty be imported from abroad into the interior. Nitre is also produced in sufficient quantities to supply the continent with the means of defence in the natural caves of Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia. Gypsum, which has become an important aid to agriculture, is also abundant. Building stone of every description is found in great abundance in most parts of the continent; and there are stores of beautiful marbles for ornamental purposes. There are also materials of the first quality for the manufacture of every species of earthen-ware and glass. The particular description of the mines of various kinds is reserved for the individual countries, as they form so important a part of their resources. 169. The alluvial regions of North America also present us with a great variety of interesting objects in the form of organic remains. Whole forests are found buried in beds of rock and strata of sand on the Atlantic. The remnants of marine and land animals are also found in great abundance; and the bones of the mastodon, found in various parts of the United States, have

furnished the learned with an interesting object of admiration and research. This portion of the continent is also well supplied with mineral springs. Those of pure salt are very numerous in the secondary region. Those of sulphur also abound. Others of various qualities, saline, sulphureous, chalybeate, and carbonated, were known to the natives to have been discovered by travellers in different directions. We have the best account of those in the United States, which contain numerous and valuable mineral springs of various qualities. The whole secondary region belonging to the basin of the Mississippi, abounds in sulphureous and saline springs, which have not been fully examined or described; and in almost every state, some are found which are valued for their medicinal properties.

170. In the Atlantic States, the most noted sulphureous springs are those of Bedford and York in Pennsylvania; Ontario county and Ballston in New York; Stafford in Connecticut; Pacolet springs in South Carolina; and those of the Allegany Ridge in Virginia. On the Arkansaw River there are warm springs, said to have a temperature of 180 to 190 degrees. They have long been resorted to by the Indians for the cure of diseases. Buncombe county, in North Carolina, also contains warm springs, which are much visited. In Virginia are the Warm and Hot Springs of the county of Bath. The Warm Spring issues with a very bold stream, sufficient to turn a mill, and keeps the water in its basin thirty feet in diameter, at the vital warmth of ninety-six degrees. The Hot Spring, about six miles distant, has a temperature of 106 to 108 degrees of Fahrenheit. In the adjoining county of Monroe are the sweet springs, which rise at the foot of a large mountain; they are usually considered as more medicinal than any others in Virginia, especially for drinking; and are very copious, so that a saw-mill can be turned by them at the distance of 200 yards from their source. The taste is slightly acid; and hence they were absurdly called sweet. The temperature is 72 degrees of Fahrenheit. At New Lebanon, twenty-nine miles south-east of Albany, is a warm spring which has a moderate degree of heat. The mineral impregnation is very slight, but it has frequently proved a valuable remedy for diseases. Chalybeate springs are so numerous in all parts of the United States, that a particular description is impracticable. The most celebrated in the northern states are those of Ballston and Saratoga in New York; Schooley's Mountain in New Jersey; Stafford in Connecticut; and the red springs, near the swee springs of Virginia. A spring recently discovered at Orange, near Newark in New Jersey, has begun to be a place of resort from the city of New York. All these springs, except those of Ballston and Saratoga, are simple chalybeates, with very little carbonic acid gas. Ballston and Saratoga are remarkable for the number and variety of their mineral springs, which are probably not surpassed in efficacy by any in the world. Their waters are bottled, and exported to distant states, and even to Europe, in considerable quantities.

171. Ballston is chiefly distinguished for its chalybeate springs, highly impregnated, and

sparkling with carbonic acid gas. Besides these, it has a saline and sulphureous spring, which are of less value. Saratoga is particularly celebrated for its saline springs, of a purgative quality, also impregnated with carbonic acid gas. The Congress spring is the principal; but there are several others of a similar kind. There are also several chalybeate springs, little inferior hose of Ballston in pleasantness or efficacy. The Olympian springs, in Kentucky, have a similar variety of waters in the space of half a mile. A remarkably fine spring of aerated water was found at the foot of James's Peak, among the rocky mountains, by the party of Major Long. 172. Springs of petroleum are found in the United States, near Green River, Kentucky; in the western parts of Pennsylvania; in Ohio, and in other places throughout the secondary region. It is often in connection with salt. At Oil Creek, Pennsylvania, and at Seneca Lake, New York, it is found floating on the surface of springs in considerable quantities. There are several places in which inflammable air or vapour issues from the ground, which are usually termed springs one of these is found in Virginia; another is in Canada, near the Niagara river; but these appear to be merely objects of curiosity. 173. OBJECTS OF CURIOSITY.-CATABACTS.-The numerous rivers of North America, and its varied surface, of course give rise to many fine cataracts. The most celebrated is, the Falls of Niagara, in the river of the same name, which surpasses all others of the known world in grandeur. The whole mass of water, which forms the great inland seas of America, is here compressed into a channel of three quarters of a mile in width, and plunges over a precipice of 150 to 160 feet in height, into an abyss whose depth has never been fathomed.

174. The river is divided by Grand and Navy Islands, more than a mile above the grand falls, and from this place has a gradual descent of fiftyseven feet. The banks preserve the level of the country, and rise in some parts 100 feet from the water. The rapidity of the current is such that the whole stream is covered with waves, and foams like the sea in a storm. At the grand falls the river is three-fourths of a mile broad, and the precipice winds nearly in a semicircle, extending in the longest line, on the American or eastern side. The falls are divided by Goat Island into two principal portions; the American Fall on the east, and the Horse-shoe Fall on the west, or Canada side. A portion of the fall on the American side is cut off by a small island on the precipice, and forms a narrow sheet between this and Goat Island. The rest descends in one body, from a precipice 164 feet in height, and 1000 feet in length. The water is more shallow than in the other fall, and descends almost perpendicularly. Both the falls on the American side are crossed by bridges. The Horse-shoe Fall is 14 feet less in height, but far superior in grandeur. The great body of the water passes over this fall, and with such force that it forms a curved sheet, and strikes the stream below at the distance of 50 feet from the base of the precipice. The wind and stream are frequently in a state which permits visitors to pass behind the sheet of

water; but there is much danger of injury from the fall of rocks, which occasionally break off from the precipice. The best view of the falls is from Table Rock, a projecting mass of rock on the Canada bank in front of the Horse-shoe Fall.

The concussion of the waters produces a shock and roar which has been described as a thunder which fills the heaven and shakes the earth.' The clouds of spray which rise from the bottom, and conceal the source of this tumultuous roar from the spectator, ascend to the height of 100 feet above the precipice, and float away in varied shapes to a considerable distance. They are frequently illuminated with a rainbow. Sometimes three are visible in different parts of the cloud, and crown the sublimity of the scene with their dazzling splendour. The whole river seems to be in a foam, and for some distance is agitated with a deep tremour, or vibration, like the heaving produced by the shocks of an earthquake. The emotions inspired by such a scene are beyond description. The mind is overwhelmed with a sense of the weakness and littleness of man, and the awful power of the Creator. In describing this wonderful cataract, the most sublime features of all the others are depicted. The foam, the roar, the clouds of vapour, and usually the rainbow, attend most cataracts in a greater or less degree and a minute account of others would involve the repetition of similar circumstances, less grand and interesting in their character.

:

175. The River Montmorenci forms a cataract 220 feet in height, nine miles below Quebec, which is in full view from the St. Lawrence. The body of water is small, and the breadth only 50 feet; but the height is great. The waters appear like snow-white foam, enveloped in a cloud of vapour, and the whole effect is grand. The falls of the River Chaudiere, which are not far distant, are about 100 feet in height, and are surrounded with interesting scenery.

175. The Mississippi forms a cataract, 40 feet in height, above its junction with the Ohio, which is more conspicuous for beauty than grandeur. The stream is 700 feet in width; the country around is level and fertile, and there are no precipices to interrupt the view.

177. The Missouri, at the distance of 500 miles from its source, descends 360 feet in eighteen miles, generally in a series of rapids. There are three principal cataracts; the highest eighty-seven feet; the second forty-seven; and the third twenty-six feet in height. The river is 1000 feet broad; and the whole scene is said to be surpassed by no other of the kind except Niagara.

178. The falls of the Passaick, a small river in New Jersey, are among the most celebrated in the United States. They are situated in Patterson, about fifteen miles from Newark. The river is 120 feet broad, and falls in one entire sheet into a chasm seventy feet in depth, and twelve wide. Its waters form the moving power for the most considerable group of manufactories in the United States.

179. The Mohawk River, near its junction with the Hudson, forms the falls termed the Cohoes, about sixty feet in height. In the Housatonic River, in the north-western corner