or iron hardened were the chief offensive weapons of the Roman heavy-armed infantry. The length of the blade was from nineteen to twenty-one inches. Polybius says, that down to the time of Annibal the Romans used the Greek or Etruscan sword; but that they then adopted the Spanish or Celtiberian steel double-edged cut and thrust, the gladius described above. Plate II. fig. 11, is a Roman sword and scabbard. The ages of Roman swords may be thus ascertained (leafshape excepted), the more obtuse the point the older, the last form of the blade being like the modern. The dagger of Brutus upon his coins certainly tapers broadly downwards, and so do other daggers; but the parazonium retained the obtuse Greek point. Dr. Meyrick mentions a Roman dagger not a foot long, and much resembling a French bayonet blade. The swords had ferrules. On which side the sword was worn appears not to have been settled till the time of Trajan, upon whose column the emperor, pretorian officers, tribunes, and centurions, always wear it on the left; all others on the right. Under Augustus the right of wearing a sword was confined to military men and certain magis trates. The barbarian swords were crooked like scimitars; but straight swords, resembling the Greek, sometimes appear. Those of the Gauls and Celtiberians were also straight. The spatha, a large sword, like the Gaulish below, distinguishes the Roman auxiliaries. Leaf-shaped swords were used by the Etruscans and Samnites. The Cimbri had swords of unusual forms, and, according to Plutarch, long swords, seemingly the degans or spads, so highly prized as to be sometimes considered from its cruciform shape, the symbol of Deity. They were sharp, and often inscribed with Runic characters; and, in order to excite terror, those of the chiefs had proper names. The Gauls had very large swords. The Roman dagger was called pugio and parazonium. Centurions and tribunes carried a sword and dagger. The latter became a mark of imperial sovereign power, and the pretorian prefect carried it, sometimes the emperor himself. Galba wore his hung to his neck. Poniards stuck in the girdle are distinctive attributes of the secretaries of the emperors of Constantinople. They were called evyepidia. All the barbarous nations were noted for splendid baudricks. That of Darius was of gold. Amongst ancient missiles, bows and arrows were conspicuous. The subject of archery has been before treated, but we add the following particulars from Dr. Meyrick. The GrecoEgyptians appear in a car, using the bow. They were also curious in their quivers; plate I. fig. 7, is a quiver with its covering from Denon; fig. 8 is an arrow of the early people. The Ethiopians had bows four cubits long, with arrows proportionate, and pointed with sharp stones instead of iron; the Jews had bows of brass; the Arabs large bows made with a handle and two curved horns; the Persians long arrows made of cane and sharp bows; the Parthians bows made of two pieces, fastened into a handle; the Indians cane bows and arrows, the latter headed with iron; the Scythians made co verings to their quivers with the skins of the right hands of their enemies; the Scythian bows resembled a crescent or the letter C; the Mæotian bow was like the Scythian; the Sarmatian bows and arrows were of cornel wood, the piles of the latter being of wicker. The Caspians had bows of cane. Plate I. fig. 16, is a Phrygian quiver, bow and arrows; fig. 31, a Theban bow, case and quiver; fig. 34 is a Greek bow. Greek Bows.-The short bow was made of two long goats' horns, fastened into a handle. The original bow-strings were thongs of leather, but afterwards horse-hair was substituted, whence they were called Tea, and, from being formed of three plaits, rpikwolę. The knots were termed koown and were generally of gold, which metal, and silver, also ornamented the bows on other parts. The arrow-heads were sometimes pyramidal, whence the epithet reтpayovia, and the shafts were furnished with feathers. They were carried in a quiver, which, with the bow, was slung behind the shoulders. Some of these were square, others round. Many had a cover to protect the arrows from dust and rain, and several appear on fictile vases to have been lined with skins. As the Greek bows were small, they were drawn not to the ear but to the right breast. Roman Bows.-The sagittarii, or archers attached to the legion, were of various nations, but chiefly from Crete and Arabia. The arrows which they used had not only their piles barbed, but were furnished with little hooks just above, which easily entered the flesh, but tore it when attempted to be withdrawn. The bow-string was made of horse-intestines. The mode of drawing it was with the fore finger and the thumb, as the Amazons do on the vases. The term falarica signified variously:-1. A halberd. 2. A pike with a very long head, and a bowl of lead at the other end. 3. A kind of arrow shot against wooden towers. Sulpitius makes the head iron, and the wood hardened with sulphur, bitumen, resin, and surrounded with tow steeped in oil, in order to be lit and discharged from a balista. Pliny ascribes the invention of the sling to the Phoenicians, but its true origin is undoubtedly beyond the date of authentic history. The Jewish slingers are said to have been so expert, that some hundreds of them in one army could sling stones to a hair's breadth and not miss, a circumstance which explains the adroitness of David. The Greeks had aкpoßoλioral, or mounted slingers. The opevdovn, or sling, says Dr. Meyrick, was especially the weapon of the Acarnanians, the Etolians, and the Achæans, who inhabited Egium, Dyma, and Patræ, but the last of these so far excelled, that when any thing was directly levelled at a mark, it was usual to call it Axaikov Belog. It was sometimes made of wood, and sometimes of leather, and is described by Dionysius, as having its cup not exactly hemispherical, but hemispheroidical, de creasing to two thongs at its ends. Out of it were cast stones or plummets of lead called Μολυβδιδες, οι μολυβδίδαι σφαιραι, some of which are engraved by Stuart on the upper part of plate XXVII. in the third volume of the Antiquities of Athens. They are spheroidical, hav ing an ornament on one side, and the word dɛğaç on the other. We are told that some of these weighed no less than an Attic pound, i. e. an hundred drachms. Small ones may be seen in the British Museum. According to the size of them the slings were managed by one, two, or three cords. At a later period the Greeks had a method of casting from their slings Tupoßolo Moot, or fire balls, and from their machines OKUтalia, made of combustibles, fitted to an iron head, which, being armed with a pike, stuck fast into its object, that it might be more surely inflamed. The funditores or slingers of the Roman armies were generally, says the same author, from the Balearic Isles, Majorca, Minorca, &c. or Achæans. Amongst these nations mothers are said to have allowed no food to their children which they did not beat down with the sling. They shot much larger stones than other nations, and with the powers of a catapult, so that in sieges they grievously galled the troops on the ramparts, and in the field broke the armour in pieces. Froissart says the same thing of them in the middle age. Ovid mentions their use of balls of lead, which, Dr. Meyrick says, they introduced. They appear to have been of the form of olives, and are inscribed with Greek or Latin characters. Aldrovandi has also published others with fugitivi peritis, and ital. and gal. On others are feri. Stones were also used, but as they could not always be got proper, these leaden balls were cast. The Romans, as did the Greeks, called a mounted ring a sling, from the resemblance of the circle of the ring to the leather enclosing the stone, &c. The sling appears to have been a long narrow piece of leather or stuff, the two ends of which were held in the hand, and the stone put in the folding at the bottom, one of the ends having a loop for the fingers, that when the stone was thrown the sling might not slip out of the hand. The Achaian slings were made of a triple cord. fustibulum was a sling annexed to a stick. The SECT. 2.-ARMOUR OF THIS PERIOD. Armour, says Dr. Meyrick, had its origin in Asiatic effeminacy. The warlike Europeans at first despised any other defence but the shield; but, in order to be on an equality with their neighbours, were obliged to have recourse to further artificial protection. The progressive kinds of armour appear to have been these: 1. Skins. 2. Hides, padded linen, matted stuff or wood. 3. Leather armour with a rim of metal. 4. Plates or scales. Scaled armour on ancient monuments distinguishes barbarians from Greeks and Romans. Vegetius wonders by what fatality it happened that the Romans, after having used heavy armour to the time of Gratian, should, by their laying aside their breast-plates and helmets, put themselves on a level with the barbarians. Of helmets. It is certain that no helmet appears in classical eras, where the face was wholly covered by the junction of a movable visor and beaver. The first armour of the galerus kind was formed from the head and skin of an animal, especially of the lion; for the skin of a horse's head with the ears and mane, the mane serving for a crest, while the ears appeared erect on the head of the wearer, was an Indian and Ethiopian fashion, whence, thinks Dr. Meyrick, originated crests and tufts. Diodorus Siculus confirms this by saying that the crests of the royal Egyptian helmets were the heads of the lion, bull, or dragon. Plate I. fig. 3, 4, are GrecoEgyptian helmets, from Dr. M. The Milyans had helmets of skins; those of a fox formed the early Thracian helmet, and this ancient fashion of the heroic ages appears in the galerus of the Roman light troops, and the musicians and standard-bearers on the Trajan column. This custom gave birth to various forms and annexations of helmets and caps. The Phrygian bonnet, plate I. fig. 13 (originally represented by Mr. Hope), is the most ancient form of helmets; Dr. Meyrick suggests that the long flaps descending on the shoulders were probably cut originally out of the legs of the animals, whose hide or skin formed the body of the casque; and thinks this formed the original Trojan helmet. The helmet of Pluto, with a pendant falling upon each shoulder, given to him by the Cyclops in the war with the giants, and again given to Perseus when he killed Medusa, is a fine specimen, Two curious kinds, being the helmets of the goddess Roma, occur on the coins of the Aurelia and other families. The Sarmatians preserved the Phrygian form, with the neck-piece of scales; and this, which appears on the Trajan column, has given birth to a confusion with it of double-chained mail in Mr. Hope's specimen. F.ate I. fig. 19, is a Dacian helmet. This bonnet, as well as the long trowsers, was among the Greek artists a distinctive attribute of barbarians. The tiara helmet is Greco-Egyptian, Median, Persian (occurring at Persepolis), Hyrcanian, and Bactrian; with a flap hanging down behind, so as to form ear-pieces, as well as to protect the head and shoulders, Armenian. But all cylindrical helmets were not of this oriental character. Other helmets that have been specified by historians, are spiked helmets, like the Chinese. The Scythian conical helmet, and Dacian scull-caps, also with spikes. The casques of the Greek soldiers had only a long point or simple stud; those of officers crests and plumes. Plate I. fig. 17, represents a Syriac helmet, from Mr. Hope, much resembling, as Dr. Meyrick observes, that of the modern Chinese. The most extraordinary scull-cap is, however, the Grecian one, with a visor and neck-piece, presumed by Strutt to be anterior to the Trojan war. The conical helmet conformed to the shape of the head (plate I. fig. 14), and next to that demi-oval and sugar-loaf, is the most common form of helmets, but offers no characteristic of era or country. In general the barbarous nations have perpendicular demi-ovals. Horned helmets were worn by the Phrygians, though but rarely. They were adopted by the Greeks (plate I. fig. 30), and, according to Diodorus Siculus, by the Belgic Gauls. Being formed as typical of the religion of the country, and the horns of the ox or cow being emblematic of the moon, they were a fit accompaniment for the crescent-like shields. The Gauls, says Diodorus, wear helmets of brass, with large appenda ges for the sake of ostentation; for they have either horns of the same metal joined to them, or the shapes of birds and beasts. The early Greeks used a helmet called Epikepaλaia, because it left only an aperture for the sight and breath. The part which came over the face was called Αυλωπις. The Samnite helmet is something like the Epiɛpaλaia, but, instead of the visor forming a part of it, it is put on the face like a mask, perforated merely for the eyes, and comes down to the collar bones. It is also furnished with a ridge. See plate II. fig. 5 and 6. The Carians are said to have invented the crest of the helmet; but the real origin is that we have given. The earliest Greek helmet, as presumed, is that of Strutt; and the next apparent era (to judge with Dr. Meyrick from Etruscan specimens, which preserved the remains of the ancient Grecian style) is that where they are all ridge and crest, either of leather, strained upon a frame, or cut out of a solid wooden block; for such helmets are ancient. See Meyrick, xvii. xviii. &c. One of these very old helmets has a faceguard. See plate I. fig. 27; and plate II. fig. 1 and 4; the latter has the horse-tail, recently introduced in our cavalry. The succeeding era shows the visor, Phrygian, bird's neck with horns added. The Etruscan and ancient Greek fashions are known to have been alike; and some were five-crested, with a horse-tail besides; for it is noted by Mongez, that Homer never speaks of plumes in crests, only of horse-hair. The continental antiquaries class the Greek and Roman helmets as follows: 1. Helmets without crests, visors, and cheek-pieces, i. e. scull-caps. These are Etruscan, and of course early Greek. 2. Helmets with crests and panaches (i. e. the horse-hair appendages), but without movable visors and cheek-pieces. 3. Helmets, with movable visors without cheek-pieces. 4. Helmets with cheek-pieces, but no visor. 5. Helmets both with cheek-pieces and movable visors. 6. Singular helmets, with aigrettes, plumes, wings, horns, double crests, double cheek-pieces, (some of which are very ancient, being seen on the Hamilton vases,) and others with fantastical additions and over-loaded crests, either, in the main, barbarian, or subsequent to the removal of the seat of empire to Constantinople. Plate II. fig. 9, is a Roman helmet, now in the British Museum; fig. 12 is a more ornamented one, used in the time of the emperors. Meyrick. A quilted pectoral hanging over the breast and shoulders, like a tippet, sometimes very curiously wrought, was the only body-armour of the Egyptians. See plate I. fig. 10. Ancient figures of Minerva have a pectoral of scale armour, with flap sleeves of the same, and among the Libyans, from whom was derived the Ægis, it was merely a skin, with a fringe of leather. The Jews had pectorals, the coats of mail of our translation of the Bible, probably first of linen, but afterwards of plates of metal, and called thoraces. The Assyrians, Medes, Susians, and Persians, had them of linen. The change of them into brazen thoraces was first made by the latter nation. Dr. Meyrick thinks the thorax of Homer and the Greeks to have been a large breast-plate made of leather, or perhaps brass, to which the shoulder guards were attached behind. Body-armour consists of thoraces, tunics, cuirasses, girdles, or belts. The continental antiquaries call the military tunic, that worn under the cuirass. The Jews are presumed to have had a tunic, upon which the thorax was fastened. The Medes and Persians had tunics covered with plates like fish-scales, of scarlet or purple. The latter, in the time of Alexander the Great, had them embroidered with gold, the sleeves adorned with pearls. The Thracians, imitated in the retiarii, had short tunics or cuirasses, which came up to their breasts, and reached nearly half-way of their thighs. The Phrygians wore a tunic with tight sleeves down to the wrists, and covered with flat rings. Some Etruscan spearmen had quilted tunics with short sleeves; and their_archers tunics of leather. Strutt's bronze Etruscan warrior has a short tunic, with no skirts on the sides below the girdle. It seems to have been made of stiff and rigid leather, but has only one sleeve of that material; that of the right arm, for the use of the sword, being of more flexible stuff. In Cæsar's time almost all the Roman Equites had quilted, stuffed, or felted tunics, or tegmenta. Some of these stuffed were steeped in vinegar, to render them hard; others were of leather, and both were edged with iron round the neck, and sometimes round the line of the abdomen. The light cavalry used such cuirasses. The Ligurian tunics were girt with a belt. Cuirasses were made, 1. of folded linen or cloth, or felted with salt and vinegar, and used by the Egyptians, Ajax in the Trojan war, the Athenians, Alexander, &c. 2. Of leather sometimes used by the Sarmatian chiefs. Brass and iron were most common, of two pieces, and joined by a buckle at the shoulders. These were altered, through their heaviness, to plates upon leather or cloth; and both these and chainmail, but not interlaced, says Dr. Meyrick, also occur. Plate I. fig. 28, represents a cuirass with the girdle as passing over the shoulder-pieces. Gold plates distinguished the Greek and Roman generals. The soldiers on the Trajan column wear a short leathern tunic, like a waistcoat, upon which plates of metal were sewed. The plates were sometimes superseded by small chains. The Etruscan cuirasses were plain, scaled, ringed, laminated, or quilted. See plate II. fig. 3. Dependent from their cuirasses were straps, sometimes merely of leather, at others with pieces of metal on them, and these appendages, termed by the French lambrequins, were, together with their plain and laminated cuirasses, adopted by the Romans. But several changes took place afterwards. On the Trajan column we find the lorica of the hastati and principes, consisting of several bands of brass or steel, each wrapping half round the body, and therefore fastening before and behind on a leathern or quilted tunic. These laminated lorica were very heavy. The Roman lorica was frequently enriched on the abdomen with embossed figures, on the breast with a Gorgon's head, for an amulet, on the shoulder plates with scrolls of thunderbolts, and on the leather border, which covered the top of the lambrequins, with lion's heads formed of the precious metals. The compact cuirass was made to open at the sides, where the breast and back plates joined by means of clasps and hinges. The lorica of the triarii were of leather only. In the time of Marcus Aurelius they had cuirasses of scales or leaves of iron, called squammatæ or plumatæ, a fashion first adopted from the Dacians or Sarmatians by Domitian, who, according to Martial, had a lorica made of boars' hoofs stitched together. When the lorica was of one piece, whether of leather or metal, and reached to the abdomen, it had the pendent flaps, called lambrequins, before-mentioned, made of leather, fringed at the bottom, and sometimes highly ornamented. At the time of Trajan the lorica was shortened, being cut straight round above the hips; and then there were overlapping sets of lambrequins to supply the deficiency in length, and generals thus habited may be observed on the Trajan column. The Roman cavalry did not at first wear lorica, but afterwards adopted the Greek arms, and then were called loricati. Plate II. fig. 7, is a Roman general's lorica with its zone. In the time of Constantine the Great, the cataphractes or heavy horse, the same as the Persian Clibanarii, had flexible armour, composed of scales or plates; and rings held together by hooks and chains the lorica hamata, which, however, is much older than the period mentioned. The Sicilian cuirasses, like those of the ancient Greeks, consisted of back and breastpieces with lambrequins. Plate II. fig. 2 is a Samnite cuirass and gorget. Belts, or Girdles, were plated with metal, and covered the body below the pectoral, among the Jews. The Scythian body-armour on the Theodosian column consists of a tunic, wadded, with a girdle and cross-belts of leather studded; the sleeves very short, but secured with two bands, like the belts. The Greek girdle, wvn, very rich and varied, bound the armour together, whence Caveolaι became a general word to imply putting on armour. In Homer, the girdle was not worn directly above the loins, but just below the chest. The arms of the Greek warriors (very early ages excepted) appear naked; but among the Romans of rank, lambrequins or straps richly adorned and fringed protected the upper arms. Plate I. fig. 35, represents the inside and outside of a Grecian greave for the right leg. Dr. Meyrick observes that in ancient times the shape of the shield had much to do with the mythology of the people, and therefore were circular to represent the sun, crescent-like to imitate the moon, &c.' The ivy-leaf was sacred to Bacchus, and it might be from this people that the Greeks derived the pelta, which Xenophon describes as of the same form. The first shields were of basket-work, to which succeeded light wood. Ox leather, covered with metal plates, was, however, the most useful material. The middle had a plate of metal (Latin, umbo), often furnished with a thread of metal, turned in a circle or spirally. At first the shield was carried by a piece of leather, suspended from the neck over the left shoulder. This apparatus often appears upon Etruscan monuments. The handles of shields, says Herodotus, were inventions of the Carians. When, after war, the shields were suspended in the temples, the handles were taken away, to prevent their being of service in sedition. Eschylus says that bells were sometimes added to shields, to affright enemies by the sudden sound, but Dr. Meyrick could not find a specimen. The Carians also introduced the ornaments of symbolic or allegorical figures, attesting the antiquity of their origin, and the valor of their ancestors. The Peloponnesians engraved their initials upon their shields, in order to distinguish themselves in battle. Thus upon their coins often occurs only a monogram of the two first letters of their nanies. The Greeks carried the shield upon either arm, as do some gladiators in Stosch, the paintings of the Villa Albani, &c. The shields of different nations have almost endless distinctions. The Greco-Egyptian_resembled a gate, oblong, with the top rounded, convex and a hole in the middle. Meyrick ii. pl. i. f. 5.-The Ethiopian was made of raw ox-hides. Id. iii.-The Jewish and Philistine was of four kinds at least, all of different sizes. Goliah had two shields, the smaller probably hung at his back by a strap, whence be could easily take it, if required, in time of action. The larger one was carried before him by his armour-bearer. Id. iv. 6.-Plate I. fig. 24, is a Phrygian shield of great elegance. Fig. 29, is a Theban shield, copied from the Persian gerra. The Assyrians and Chaldeans had bucklers after the Egyptian manner. Id. viiThe Persian shield, or a fiddle-shaped, with an ornament in the centre. The Scythian oval. Id. xiii. . The Grecian cavalry of the first era used long shields, but Philomænes introduced a round light one, not wider than necessary to cover the body. The infantry at first used oblong shields, but these Philopamen changed to the Argolic shield. The original Greek shield was, how. ever, the aonic, a perfect circle, made of several folds of leather, covered with plates of metal, laid one over the other, and about three feet in diameter, in order to reach from the neck to the calf of the leg; on which account Homer calls them aupßporac and Todŋŋkɛs, the warriors often by kneeling down and bending their heads, concealing themselves behind them. The cavalry had the λatonov a lighter and smaller round shield composed of a hide with the hair on. The light infantry used the Pelta. The hastati and principes (heavy Roman infantry) used the scutum, a hollow hemi-cylin der shield, a convex hexagon, or that shape, with its side angles rounded off. It was generally tour feet long, by two and a half broad; and made of wood joined together with little plates of iron, and the whole covered with a broad piece of linen, upon which was put a sheep's skin or bull's hide, having an iron boss jutting out in the centre, of great service in close fighting; plate II. fig. 8, is a specimen. The triarii, and sometimes the principes, used a clypeus or round buckler; or sometimes one of leather, of a square form, crimped into undula |