FUNCTIONS OF INSECTS.

29

human eye. Many insects still smaller have eyes, so contrived as to discern objects some thousands of times less than themselves; for such the minute particles on which they feed must certainly be.

With respect to the wings of insects, those of the two first orders of Linnæus have their wings defended by a pair of hard crustaceous cases called elytra. The three subsequent orders have four membranaceous wings, without elytra. All the insects of the sixth order have but two wings, and under each of these, at its base, there is a poise or balancer like a little knob. These poises are commonly little balls, each placed on the top of a slender stalk, and movable every way at pleasure. In some they stand alone, but in others, as in the Flesh-fly tribe, they have little covers or hollow membranaceous scales, each of which somewhat resembles a spoon without a handle: every time the insect strikes the air with its wings, a very quick motion may be perceived in the balancer; and in the Flesh-flies, when this moves, it strikes against the little scale, and thus assists in producing the well-known buzzing sound that is made by flies when on the wing. The use of the poises to an insect seems to be precisely the same as that of a long pole, loaded at each end with lead, to a rope-dancer: they render the body steady, and obviate all its unsteadiness in flight.

The structure of the feet of these diminutive creatures is truly admirable. Those insects that live altogether in water have their feet long, flat, and somewhat hairy at the edges, well adapted to aid their motions in that element. Such as have

occasion to burrow into the earth have their legs broad, sharp-edged, and serrated. These that use their feet only in walking, have them long and cylindrical. Some have their feet furnished with sharp, hooked claws, and skinny palms, by which, from the pressure of the atmosphere upon them, they are enabled to walk on glass and other smooth surfaces, even with their backs downward. Others have somewhat like sponges that answer the same end; and the spider has each foot armed. with a kind of comb, probably for the purpose of separating the six threads that issue from so many orifices of its body, and preventing them from tangling. In insects which have occasionally to pass over spaces by leaping, the thighs of the hind legs are peculiarly large and thick.

The tongue of insects is a taper and compact instrument, by which they suck their food. Some of them can contract or expand it; and others, as the Butterflies, roll it up under their head, somewhat like the spring of a watch. In many it is enclosed within a sheath; and in several, as the Flies, it is fleshy and tubular. The mouth is generally placed somewhat underneath the front part of the head; but in a few of the tribes it is situated below the breast. Some insects have it furnished with a kind of forceps, for the purpose of seizing and cutting their prey; and in others it is pointed, to pierce animal or vegetable substances, and suck their juices. In several it is strongly ridged with jaws and teeth, to gnaw and scrape their food, carry burdens, perforate the earth, nay the hardest wood, and even stones, for the habitations and nests of their offspring. In a few the tongue is so short as to appear to us incapable of answering the purpose for which it is formed; and the Gadflies appear to have no mouth.

Near the mouth are situated the palpi or feelers: these are generally four, but sometimes six in number. They are a kind of thread-shaped articulated antennæ. Their situation, beneath and at the sides of the mouth, renders them, however, sufficiently distinct from the proper antennæ. Some writers consider them to be useful in holding food to the mouth, whilst the insects are eating.

Linnæus has divided the animals of this class into seven orders,* viz :

1. Coleopterous insects (derived from the Greek words xoλeos a sheath, and repo a wing.) These are the Beetles, or such as have crustaceous elytra or shells, which shut together, and form a longitudinal suture down the back. Of this order are the Chafer tribes, and several others.

2. Hemipterous insects (from μovs half, and яTEρov a wing,) have their upper wings half crustaceous, and half membranaceous, not divided by a longitudinal suture, but incumbent on or crossed over each other; as the Cockroach, Locust, &c.

3. Lepidopterous insects (from ñɛλç a scale, and яTεроv a wing,) are those having

Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, Neuroptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera, and Aptera.

30

ON THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF WORMS.

four wings covered with fine scales apparently like powder or meal; as the Butterflies and Moths.

4. Neuropterous insects (from vɛuρo a nerve, and ЯTEρov a wing,) have four membranaceous, transparent, naked wings, in which the membranes cross each other so as to appear like net-work. The tail has no sting, but is sometimes furnished with appendices like pincers, by which the males are distinguished. The common Dragon-fly is the best example that can be brought to illustrate this order; and the genus Phrygenea forms an exception with respect to the net-work appearance of the wings.

5. Hymenopterous insects (from juny a membrane, and repov a wing.) The insects belonging to this order have generally four membranaceous naked wings: the neuters, however, in some of the genera, and in others the males or females, are destitute of wings. The wings do not so much resemble net-work as those of the last order. The tail, except in the male, is armed with a sting. The Bee, the Wasp, and the Ant are of this tribe.

6. Dipterous insects (from dinλoos double, and reрov a wing,) are those which have only two wings, each furnished at its base with a poise or balancer. The common House-flies and the Gnat are familiar examples of this order.

7. Apterous insects (from a without, and repov a wing.) This order contains all such insects as are destitute of wings in both sexes; as the Spider, the Flea, and the Louse.

WORMS.

Nearly all the species of this, the lowest class of animal being, have slow locomotive powers. Their bodies are soft, fleshy, and destitute of articulated members. Some of them have hard internal parts, and others have crustaceous coverings. Many of them have arterial and venous vessels, in which the blood undergoes a real circulation; but these are by no means common to the whole class. In some of thein eyes and ears are very perceptible, while others seem to enjoy only the senses of taste and touch, which are never wanting. Many have no distinct head, and most of them are destitute of feet. The whole of these creatures are very tenacious of life. In most of them, such parts as have been destroyed will afterward be reproduced.

They are divided into five orders *:

1. Intestinal Worms. These are simple naked animals, without limbs, that live some of them within other animals, some in water, and a few in earth. The Ascarides, Tapeworms, Leeches, and Common Worms, are illustrations of this order.

2. Molluscous Worms. These are simple animals without shells, and furnished with tentacula or arms: most of them are inhabitants of the sea, and some of the species possess a phosphorescent quality. The Sea Anemones, Cuttle-fish, Medusa, Star-fish, and Sea-urchins, belong to the Moluscæ.

3. Testaceous Worms; are Mollusca covered with calcareous shells, which they carry about with them; as the Mussels, Cockles, Oysters, Snails, &c.

4. Zoophytes; appear to hold a rank between animals and vegetables, most of them taking root and growing up into stems and branches. Some of them are soft and naked, and others are covered with a large shell.

5. Animalcules; are extremely minute, destitute of tentacula or feelers, and generally invisible to the naked eye. They are chiefly found in infusions of animal and vegetable substances of various kinds.

* Intestina, Mollusca, Testacea, Zoophyta, and Infusoria, of Linnæus.

MAMMIFEROUS ANIMALS.

PRIMATES.

This is the first of the Linnean orders of quadrupeds. The animals, except some species of Bats, have four parallel front teeth in each jaw. They have one canine tooth on each side in both jaws. The females have two pectoral mamma or breasts. The fore feet resemble hands, and have fingers, for the most part, furnished with flattened oval nails.

OF APES IN GENERAL.

INDEPENDENTLY of the general form of these animals, and of their external and internal organization, which in many respects present a striking and humiliating resemblance to those of men, their playfulness, their gesticulations and grimace, have, in all ages, attracted the notice of mankind. Some naturalists have asserted, that they are capable of reasoning and reflection, and that they are guided by instincts much superior to those of the brute creation in general. This, however, is certainly not the case; for they are known to be inferior in sagacity to numerous other quadrupeds.

Their limbs are peculiarly strong; and, in all their operations and manoeuvres, their agility is most astonishing. They have great delight in breaking, tearing to pieces, or stealing whatever lies in their way. If any thing irritates or offends them, they indicate their rage by chattering with their teeth. Many of the species, when they are beaten, will sigh, groan, and weep, like children; but most of them, on such occasions, utter dreadful shrieks of distress. They, however, frequently make such ridiculous grimaces, place themselves in such strange and whimsical attitudes, and, in other respects, conduct themselves so singularly, that even the most serious persons must, sometimes, be amused with them.

For greater facility of description, the animals of this extensive tribe are usually arranged in three divisions of Apes, Baboons, and Monkeys.

Apes are destitute of tails; they walk upright; their legs are furnished with calves; and their hands and feet nearly resemble those of men. In their manners they are, for the most part, mild and gentle, and they imitate human actions more readily, and are susceptible of greater attainments, than any others of their tribe. Baboons have short tails; they generally walk on all fours, and seldom go upright, except when constrained so to do in a state of servitude. Some of the baboons are as tall as men, have long faces, sunken eyes, and are otherwise extremely disgusting. In their dispositions they are usually so sullen and ferocious as to be incapable of any education

whatever. Monkeys have tails in general longer than their bodies They are by far the most lively and active of the whole race. They are greatly addicted to thieving, and scarcely ever imitate human actions without a mischievous intention. One division of the Monkeys, which are denominated, by the French writers, Sapajous, have their tails extremely long, and so formed that they can coil them round any object, so as to answer nearly all the purposes of an additional hand. By means of these they are able even to swing themselves backward and forward amongst the branches of trees. The animals of this division are inhabitants almost exclusively of the New Continent.

Monkeys usually live in much more extensive troops than either Apes or Baboons. Some naturalists have been credulous enough to believe that they form a sort of republic, in which a great degree of subordination is kept up; that they always travel in regular order, conducted by chiefs, the strongest and most experienced animals of their troop; and that, on these occasions, some of the largest Monkeys are likewise placed in the rear, the sound of whose voice immediately silences those of any of the others which happen to be too noisy. The negroes of Africa believe that these animals are a vagabond race of men, who are too indolent to construct habitations or to cultivate the ground.

The dexterity of Monkeys is such, that, although burdened by their offspring clinging to their backs, they are able to leap from one tree to another, if the distance be not very great, and to secure their hold among the branches with the greatest certainty. When they perceive any person taking aim at them, either with a gun or bow, they cry out and grind their teeth, and this sometimes in the most horrible manner imaginable. If a Monkey be shot, and fall to the ground, all the rest set up a dismal and tremendous howl; and if one of these animals be wounded, and do not fall, it frequently happens that his companions will seize and carry him off far beyond the reach of their enemy.

In many parts of India, Apes and Monkeys are made objects of worship by the natives, and temples of the greatest magnificience are erected in honour of them. Their numbers are almost infinite. They frequently come in troops into the cities, and enter the houses at all times with perfect freedom. In Calicut, however, the inhabitants contrive to keep them out of their dwellings; but to effect this they are compelled to have all their windows latticed. In Amadabad, the capital of Guzerat, there are three hospitals for animals, where lame and sick Monkeys, and even those which (without being diseased) choose to dwell there, are fed and cherished. Twice every week the monkeys of the neighborhood assemble spontaneously in the streets of the city. They then mount upon the houses, each of which has a small terrace or flat roof, where they lie during the great heats. On these days the inhabitants always carefully deposit on the terraces, rice, millet, or fruit; and if they be accidentally prevented from doing this, the disappointed animals become so furious, that they break the tiles, and commit various other outrages.

THE ORAN OTAN, AND CHIMPANZEE.

33

1. APES.

THE ORAN OTAN, AND CHIMPANZEE.

DESCRIPTION. The Oran Otan, when full grown, is from five to six feet in height. Its color is a ferruginous or reddish brown; and the hair of the fore-arm is reversed. The face is naked, and bears some resemblance to that of a man; but the facial angle is considerably more acute, and consequently the forehead is much more oblique than in any human subject. The chin also has no elevation.

SYNONYMS. Simia Satyrus. Linnæus.-Great Ape. Penn.-Man of the Woods. Edwards.Le Jocko. Buffon. Audebert.-Jocko, in Congo.-Sinsin, in China.-Oran Otan, in the Indian Islands. This name signifies Wild Man,

DESCRIPTION. The difference betwixt the Chimpanzee and Oran Otan is chiefly in size and color. The Chimpanzee seldom measures more than from two feet and a half to three feet in height; and its hair is dark brown or blackish.

SYNONYMS. Simia Troglodytes. Linn.-Le Pongo. Buffon. Audebert-Baris, in Guinea.Chimpanzee or Quimpezee, by the English who frequent the coast of Angola.

IN its native state, the Oran Otan is an inhabitant of Borneo, China, the East Indies, and Africa; and the Chimpanzee, of Angola, Sierra Leona, and some parts of Asia. Both the species are exceedingly wild, and are found only in the most retired places. They feed on fruit, vegetables, and roots of various kinds; and such as inhabit the forests that are adjacent to the seashore, live occasionally on crabs and shell-fish. Their resting-places are in trees, where they are perfectly secure from the attack of all predacious creatures except Serpents.

Andrew Battel, a Portuguese traveller, who,

two centuries ago, resided in Angola nearly eighteen years, informs us that these animals were very common in the woods of that country. Their bodies, he says, were covered, but not very thickly, with a dun-colored hair; and their legs were without calves. They always walked upright, and generally, when on the ground, carried their hands clasped on the hinder part of their neck. They slept in the trees, amongst which they formed a kind of arbor, to shelter themselves from the weather; and their food consisted principally of fruit and nuts. Battel says, that the inhabitants, when they travelled in the woods, were accustomed to make fires around the places where they slept, for the purpose of keeping at a distance various species of voracious animals; and that, at these fires, the Oran Otans would assemble in the morn. ings, and would sit by them till the last of the embers were expired.