REM. 1.-Names of individual persons or objects are called proper nouns; as, Casăr; Rōmă, Rome.

REM. 2.-Names applicable to persons or objects, not as individuals, but as members of a class, are called common nouns; as, équis, a horse (a name applicable to all animals of this class).

38. All nouns have gender, number, person, and case. 39. The Gender of a noun is either masculine, femi nine, common, or neuter.

40. In Latin, as in English, all nouns denoting objects which have sex, except such names of animals as are applicable to both sexes, are,

1) Masculine, when they denote male beings; as,

homines, men; puer, a boy; leōnēs, lions.

2) Feminine, when they denote female beings; as, mulier, a woman; puellă, a girl; leœnă, a lioness.

3) Common, when they apply alike to both sexes;

as, părens, a parent (either male or female); testis, a witness (either male or female).

41. When gender is employed to denote sex, as in the cases just noticed, it is called natural gender.

42. In nouns denoting objects without sex (neuter in English), and in most names applicable to animals of both sexes, the gender in Latin is entirely independent of sex, and is accordingly called grammatical gender.

Some of these nouns are grammatically masculine; some, grammatically feminine; and some, grammatically neuter.

43. The grammatical gender of nouns is determined partly by their signification, but principally by their endings.

44. The general rules for ascertaining the grammatical gender of nouns, independently of their endings,

are:

1) Most names of rivers, winds, and months are masculine; as, Rhenus, the Rhine; auster, the south wind: Aprīlīs, April.

2) Most names of countries, towns, islands, and trees are feminine; as Ægyptus, Egypt; Rōmă, Rome; Dēlos, name of an island; laurus, the laurel-tree.

8) Indeclinable nouns,* and clauses used as nouns, are neuter; as, ƒās, right; nihil, nothing.

Gender, as determined by the endings of nouns, will be noticed in connection with the several declensions.

45. The Numbers and Persons are the same in Latin as in English. The first person denotes the speaker; the second, the person spoken to; and the third, the person spoken of. The singular number denotes one; and the plural, more than one.

46. The Cases of Latin nouns are six in number, viz.: Nominative, Genitive, Dative, Accusative, Vocative, and Ablative.

47. The case of a nour is indicated by its ending; and the formation of its several cases is called De clension.

48. The Nominative Case corresponds to the nominative in English, both in name and use; e. g.,

Puer ludit, the boy plays.

49. RULE OF SYNTAX.†-The subject of a finite (i. e. not infinitive) verb is put in the nominative.

REM. 1.—Thus, in the example, puer is in the nominative by this rule. REM. 2.-The subject stands before the verb, as in English.

* Such as have but one form for all cases and both numbers. Rules for the government and agreement of words are called Rules of Syntax.

50. RULE OF SYNTAX.-A finite verb must agree with its subject in number and person.

REM. Thus, in the above example, ludit is in the third person singu lar, to agree with its subject puer.

Determine which of the nouns in the following Vocabularies have natural gender, and which grammatical, and apply rules.

(a) 1. Patert docet. 2. Puer ludit. 3. Filius discē bat. 4. Caesar vincēbat. 5. Puer veniet. 6. Puella cantabat. 7. Pater scribebat.

(b) 1. The girl will learn. 2. The father will conquer. 3. The boy dances. 4. The son was learning. 5. The father was ploughing. 6. The boy was playing. 7. The girl will sing. 8. Caesar was coming.

* Gender is indicated in the Vocabularies by m. for masculine, f. for feminine, c. for common, and n. for neuter.

† As the Latin has no article, a noun may be translated, (1) without the article; as, pătěr, father: (2) with the indefinite article; as, pătĕr, a father: (3) with the definite article; as, pater, the father.

(a) 1. Mors veniet. 2. Aquila volat. 3. Hostis veniebat. 4. Nubes movet. 5. Aqua fluit. 6. Canis ludebat. 7. Equus curret. 8. Magister erudiebat. 9. Rex imperabat.

10. Avis volat. 11. Volant. 12. Servus pugnabit. 13. Pugnabant. 14. Puer timēbat. 15. Timebant.

16. Puella discēbat.

bat. 19. Dormiēbant.

17. Discebant. 18. Filia dormiē.

(b) 1. The bird will fly. 2. The eagle was flying. 3. The king will come. 4. The mother will teach. 5. The daughter will learn. 6. The dog will run. 7. The

* In this and the following Vocabularies, whenever the gender of a noun is not marked, the pupil is expected to determine it by the rules already given.

slave will swear. 8. Caesar was coming. 9. The slave is ploughing.

10. They were ploughing. 11. The king will conquer. 12. They are conquering. 13. The dog will come. 14. They were coming. 15. The girl is weeping. 16. They will weep. 17. The boy is singing. 18. They will laugh.

LESSON X.

Nouns.-Vocative Case.

55. THE same form* of the noun which is called the nominative, when spoken of, is called the vocative, when spoken to. This corresponds to the nominative independ ent in English; e. g.

Father (or, O father), the boy will fall.

REM.-In very short sentences, like the above, the vocative may be placed either at the beginning or close; in other cases, however, it is generally preceded by one or more words in the sentence. 56. RULE OF SYNTAX.-The name of the

thing addressed is put in the vocative.

person or

REM. The interjection O is sometimes used before the name address

* A single exception will be noticed in another place.