The second periphrastic conjugation (425), which takes the dative of the agent; e. g., Mihi scribendum est, I must write.

660. RULE XXXIII. Impersonal Passive Verbs.-Verbs which have no direct object in the active voice, are only used impersonally in the passive; e. g., Mihi créditur, I am believed (lit., it is believed to me).

II. Adverbial Modifiers.

661. Verbs often take adverbial modifiers: these are,

1) Adverbs.

2) Adverbial expressions.

662. Verbs may be modified by adverbs; e. g., Fortĭtěr pugnăt, he fights bravely.

See Rule VIII.

REM.-Adverbial modifiers are the same whether the verb is active or passive. 663. Verbs may be modified by adverbial expressions: these are, 1) The oblique cases of nouns, with or without prepositions. 2) Infinitives, or dependent propositions.

664. The oblique cases of nouns (with or without repositions) used as adverbial modifiers, may be referred to the following classes, viz.:

1) Adverbial expressions of manner, means, &c.

2) Adverbial expressions of time.

3) Adverbial expressions of place.

4) Miscellaneous adverbial expressions.

665. The oblique cases of nouns (and sometimes of adjectives, may be used as adverbia modifiers denoting manner, means, &c.

666. RULE XXXIV. Manner, Means, &c.-The manner or cause of an action, and the means or instrument employed, are expressed by the ablative; e. g., Dõmínům glădiō occīdīt, he killed his master with a sword.

667. RULE XXXV. Price.-Price, when expressed by nouns, is usually put in the ablative, and when expressed by adjectives, usually in the genitive; e. g., (1) Avārŭs pătriăm aurō vendět, the avaricious man will sell his country for gold; (2) Avārŭs pecuniám magni aestimǎt, the avaricious man values money highly.

668. The oblique cases of nouns may be used as adverbial modifiers denoting time.

669. RULE XXXVI. Time.-Time when is expressed by the ablative without a preposition; e. g., Hiěmě ursus dormit, the bear sleeps in winter.

670. RULE XXXVII. Length of Time.-Length of time is generally expressed by the accusative; e. g., Caius annŭm ūnům vixit, Caius lived one year

671. The oblique cases of nouns (with or without prepositions) may be used as adverbial modifiers denoting place.

- 672. RULE XXXVIII.-The name of a town where any thing is, or is done, if of the first or second declension and singular number, is put in the genitive, otherwise in the ablative; e. g., (1) Caiŭs Cortōnae vixit, Caius lived at Cortona; (2) Caiŭs Tībŭrě vixĭt, Caius lived at Tibur.

673. RULE XXXIX.-The name of a place where any thing is, or is done, when not a town, is generally put in the ablative with a preposition; e. g., Ursus în antro dormit, the bear sleeps in a cave. 674. RULE XL.-After verbs of motion,

1) The place to which the motion is directed, if a town or small island, is expressed by the accusative without a preposition, otherwise by the accusative with one; e. g., (1) Romăm věnīrẻ, to come to Rome; (2) In Italiăm věnīrè, to come into Italy.

2) The place from which the motion proceeds, if a town or small island, is expressed by the ablative without a preposition, otherwise by the ablative with one; e. g., (1) Rōmá věnīrě, to come from Rome; (2) Ab Itălia věnīrě, to come from Italy.

675. RULE XLI.—Dõmus and rūs, together with the genitives bellî, hămi, and mīliliae, are used like names of towns; e. g., Cains rūrě rědiĭt, Caius returned from the country; Balbŭs ět domi čt militiae fuit, Balbus was with me both at home and on service.

676. RULE XLII.-The supine in um, as a verbal noun in the accusative, follows verbs of motion to express the purpose or object

of that motion; e. g., Mittit lēgātōs pacem pětitům, he sends ambassadors to sue for peace

677. The ablative absolute and the oblique cases of nouns with prepositions are used to express various adverbial relations.

678. RULE XLIII. Ablative Absolute.-A noun and a participle standing grammatically independent of the rest of the sentence, are put in the ablative absolute; e. g., Caesăr victīs hostibus, Caesar having conquered his enemies (or, when he had conquered; lit., his enemies being conquered).

REM.-The ablative absolute generally expresses either the adverbial relation of time (as in the above example) or that of cause; sometimes, however, it adds an attendant circumstance.

679. RULE XLIV. Prepositions with Accusative.—The following twenty-six prepositions govern the accusative; viz., Ad, adversùs, antě, ăpăd, circă or circum, cís or citra, contra, erga, extrā, infra, inter, intra, juxta, ob, pěněs, pěr, pōně, post, praetěr, propě, proptěr, secundum, supra, trans, ultra, versus (rare).

680. RULE XLV. Prepositions with Ablative.—The following eleven prepositions govern the ablative; viz., A (ăb or abs), absque, cōrăm, cùm, dē, ē or ex, pălăm, prae, prō, síně, těnŭs.

681. RULE XLVI. Prepositions with Accusative or Ablative.—The five prepositions, clăm, în, sub, subter, and sŭpěr, take sometimes the accusative and sometimes the ablative.

REM. 1.-In and sub govern the accusative in answer to whither (i. e. after verbs of motion), and the ablative in answer to where (i. e. after verbs of rest). Subter generally takes the accusative. Super takes the accusative after verbs of motion, and also when it signifies upon, and the ablative when it signifies on or of (as of a subject spoken or written about).

REM. 2.-Prepositions in composition often govern the same cases as when they stand alone.

682. Verbs may be modified by infinitives or by dependent propositions.

683. RULE XLVII. Infinitive as Modifier of Verb.—The infinitive mood may be used after verbs denoting custom, ability, and the likė; e. g., Nōn făcĕrě possŭm, I am not able to do, &c.

684. Dependent propositions, as adverbial modifiers, are gene

rally introduced by conjunctions, and express a great variety of relations, as time, place, manner, condition, &c.

685. Dependent propositions take the verb,

1) Sometimes in the indicative; e. g., Itěr făciebăm, quum has littĕrăs dăbām, I was making a journey when I gave these letters.

2) But more commonly in the subjunctive; e. g., Si quid hăbeăt, dăbit, if he has any thing, he will give it.

SECTION V.-MODIFIERS Of Adverbs.

686. Adverbs are modified by other adverbs; e. g., Sătĭs běně scripsit, he has written sufficiently well.

687. Prepositions and conjunctions are connectives, and neither modify nor are modified.

688. Interjections are expressions of emotion or mere marks of address, and have no grammatical influence upon the rest of the

sentence.

CHAPTER III.

USE OF MOODS, PARTICIPLES, Gerunds, and SUPINES.

689. THE indicative is used in positive assertions; e. g., Puěr ludit, the boy plays.

REM.-The indicative is commonly used in principal propositions, but sometimes in dependent ones.

690. The subjunctive is used both in principal and dependent propositions.

691. I. In principal propositions the subjunctive is used,

1) To express a wish or a command; e. g., Scrībăt, he may write, may he write, or let him write.

2) To express an affirmation doubtfully or conditionally; c. g., Dărět, he would give it (i. e. if he had it, perhaps).

692. II. In dependent propositions,

1) With ut, ne, quò, quin, quòmìnus, to express purpose or

consequence; e. g., Vēnīt ut scribăt, he has come to write; Caio nihil obstǎt quominus sit beātus, nothing prevents Caius from being happy (by which he should be less happy). 2) With quum (cum), when it introduces a cause or reason,

or in any way shows the dependence of one even upon
another; e. g., Quae cùm ĭtă sint, since these things are so.
3) With licet, although, quăsĩ, tanquăm, āc sī, as if, dùm,
mõdõ, dummodo, provided, if only, quamvis, however much,
however; e. g., Improbus ĭtă vivit, quăsi nesciăt, &c., the
wicked (man) lives, as if he did not know, &c.; Nēmŏ,
quamvis sit lõcăplēs, no one, however wealthy he may be.
4) In conditional sentences, to represent the condition either
as simply possible or as impossible; e. g., Si quid hăbeăt,
dăbit, if he has any thing, he will give it. Si quid hăbērēt,
dărět, if he had any thing, he would give it.

5) In indirect or dependent questions; e. g., Nescio undě sōl
Igněm hǎbeǎt, I know not whence the sun derives its fire.
6) In relative clauses, (1) to express purpose or result, and
(2) to define an indefinite antecedent; e. g., (1) Lēgātōs
misèrunt qui dicerent, they sent ambassadors to say; (2)
Sunt qui putent, there are (some) who think.

693. Subjunctive Tenses in Dependent Propositions.—The subjunctive, (1) when dependent upon a present tense (pres., perf. def., or ful.) is put in the present to denote an incomplete action, and in the perfect to denote a completed action; and (2) when dependent upon a past tense (imperf., perf. indef., or pluperf.), in the imperfect to denote an incomplete action, and in the pluperfect to denote a completed action; e. g.,

1. Nescio quid dicăt,

I know not what he is saying. 2. Nescio quid dixerit, I know not what he said.

3. Nescivit quid dicěrět, I knew not what he said.

4. Nescivit quid dixisset, I knew not what he had said.

694. The imperative is used to express a tommand; e. g., Portãs claudě, shut the gates.

695. The infinitive, which expresses the simple meaning of the verb without reference to person or number, is used,

, Difficile est judicarě,

1) As the subject of another verb; e. g.,]

it is difficult to judge.