is an ancient chair, with an hour-glass let into its crests, as if to warn him who sits therein not to hold forth too prosily. But this Fore-Hall was unused during the busy week, save by a few loungers or letter-writers, who made their way in for the sake of the peace and quiet not to be found elsewhere. For some reason it is considered as sacred to Learning and her councils, and nothing so modern as Social Science can be admitted. Whenever I entered that room I bethought me of the Scottish lords of Queen Mary's time; on such a scene would they have played their parts, and hatched conspiracies guarded by the dagger and the sword.

Where, then, were the "Sections" held? In the class-rooms of the College, where the students are wont to assemble in pursuit of materia medica, philosophy, or Greek. Public Health settled itself comfortably in the Greek Class-room, and there held forth for four days in the most cheerful manner on small-pox, scarlet-fever, and consumption, on the influence of tobacco smoking, and the prevention of accidents. Galen and Hippocrates must have been very much astonished, if their ghosts lingered on the Greek benches, to hear of the astonishing recipes come up since their time; and Mercury, the god of thieving and medicine combined, might have stolen the last new dodges in the healing art, to practise on Olympus, if he paid proper attention to information collected on the banks of the Clyde, unless, indeed, the exceeding multiplicity of the truths unfolded gratis destroyed his desire for acquisition.

Education abode in the Common Hall, the largest of all the rooms, and there Sir James Kay Shuttleworth guided the discussion in his own excellent and sympathetic style. But Punishment and Reformation were obliged to cross the street, and set up their tent in a large class-room out of the College itself, agreeing as best they might. Here it was that Miss Carpenter read to a densely crowded audience, and Dr. Guthrie poured out the most eloquent and humorous speech, by all accounts, delivered during the week. Jurisprudence found shelter within the main building, and was vigorously attended by lawyers. And, lastly, Social Economy, divided into three sections, talked away more vigorously than all the others on every subject under the sun. Here it was that the trades' unions waxed warm indeed, and taxation levied its due. Here it was that papers which appeared to have lost their way out of other departments, strayed and stumbled, and were taken in. Here it was also, I believe, that a certain mysterious subject called "General Average" grew and flourished. I did not hear it; I do not know in the least what it means; I only know that every now and then an inquiry being made for Mr. Brown, it was whispered, "He is in at General Average," and I used to speculate what on earth it could mean. An average in money, population, cloth, or bacon, is an idea into which I can enter but what in the world is a General Average? I remember inextricable sums in the arithmetic book about emptying gallons into so many quart pots, and wretched nightmares of the relations

existing between a mile and an inch; but I always understood that troy weight was in quite another category, and that the one would by no means divide by the other, nor produce any multiple of the same. No! not even on the famous principle that if poker, tongs, and shovel cost 5s., what will the coals come to?

I shall feel personally and exceedingly obliged if any gentleman will write a letter in the next Open Council, and inform the lady readers of this Journal what General Average does mean— -provided the subject can be reduced to terms.

Now any body with the smallest sense of humor, and the largest share of unconcern for the feelings of their neighbors, might draw delightful pictures of the human race on Social Science bent. There

is one element of fun to nine elements of wisdom in these meetings;-and the presence of numerous ladies adds a certain warmth and humanity to the scene. Immense is the excitement felt to hear the half dozen who actually read, and immense is the courtesy bestowed upon them. When Miss Carpenter's soft distinct tones are to be heard, the room, large or small, is sure to be packed with listeners, wedged together like "herrings in a barrel;" a vulgar simile, but very expressive. Then the ladies of the chief local families are all there, and they give grand dinner parties, and dress with sumptuous magnificence, and invite the strangers to their large houses, fitted up with a luxurious cost which Manchester can rival but cannot surpass. All Glasgow turned out in the evening to the great public soirées, and feasted the entire Association with tea and coffee, wine and ices, till I was reminded of those gardens in the old fairytales where sweetmeats grew upon the trees, and the rivers flowed champagne.

But the final burst of hospitable feeling was displayed at the closing meeting in the Common Hall on the Saturday. Epitaphs were nothing to it. Everybody had his portrait drawn and held up to the admiring gaze of hundreds. The President was universally allowed to be (what no one can well deny him) the first man of the age;— the Vice-Presidents had honored the city of Glasgow by their presence to a degree which well-nigh choked the said city with gratitude. They replied that the city was second only in attractions to the Islands of the Blest, and of considerably greater commercial importance. The Association coughed and stamped and cheered at the Principal of the College for giving them houseroom;-and the Reverend Principal replied, that the College would thenceforth be perfumed with Social Science as with attar of roses (or something to the same effect). The only person, who may be said to have received no thanks was Pope Nicholas, who built the College, and one of the Vice-Presidents, who got into a slight hobble in his speech, and with consummate tact brought himself up sharp on the Reformation, at which Glasgow and the Association united, and stamped and cheered louder than ever.

And then, the gay and busy assemblage broke up, and melted

away by some sudden magic, oozing back into a thousand homes.Glasgow gathered itself into Sabbath-eve stillness; the General Secretary went off to the mountains, accompanied by an instalment of each Department. Rumor reported that they were all seen on the Monday drinking whisky toddy in the Highlands, but I cannot believe such an incredible tale.

The writer of this sketch lingered two days on the deserted scene, and went to hear a noble sermon by Dr. Norman MacLeod, who told his congregation that after all, the Social Science of which they had been hearing so much, was but one growth of Christianity;-without which the five Departments might lay their heads together in vain.

XXIX. THE OPINIONS OF JOHN STUART MILL.

PART II.-CO-OPERATION.

NEAR the close of our last article the reader will find, upon reference, a passage upon the advantages of co-operation; and a recent discussion on this subject which took place at the meeting of the Social Science Association, has caused me to think that a complete analysis of that passage may be more useful to our readers than prolonged extracts bearing on different points of social economy.

John Stuart Mill stands pre-eminent among political economists as the apostle of co-operation; and his scientific reputation was perhaps slightly damaged in former years by the suffrage he bestowed on an idea little in favor with "hard-headed men;" yet it has gradually risen even to a greater height through the very standpoint which he assumed in regard to this question; and the principle, as it is now allowed to be, having fought its way year by year, amidst many failures and some disgraces, may be considered fairly established. The only point yet mooted is the extent to which it can be carried out by the actual men of this work-a-day world.

Believing that co-operation may be made peculiarly useful to women, I intend to begin at the beginning, and to state in the simplest words what it is-taking for granted that my readers have not studied political economy.

Co-operation, in the commercial sense, implies an application of the joint stock principle: that the money with which a concern- -say a grocer's shop, or a tailor's business, or even a factory-is carried on, has been clubbed together by different people, who appoint a manager and share the profits. This is what we usually mean by co-operation in trade, and it is not true and real unless the shares are actually shares owned by different hands. For instance; if a committee of benevolent people set to work to benefit any class of sufferers, or to improve the condition of any class of artisans, and if this committee collect subscriptions and distribute relief, or even

if it organizes self-supporting plans, it is still not a co-operative body in the trade sense of the word.

There must be a joint stock, a common fund, clubbed together yet nominally divided, and actually divisible; just as A, B, C, and D, might own a great cask of wine, so many quarts to each. And this common fund may be used or divided in various ways; the shares may be equal or unequal, the government of the different parts of the concern may be federal or strictly democratic; and so on. Only it is necessary that there shall be shares, and proportionate profits, and that in some way the concern shall be self-governed.

Self-government is the root of the idea, for which reason Mr. Mill says, "the peculiar characteristic, in short, of civilized beings is the capacity of co-operation."

And this refers to all moral as well as to all commercial cooperation. The savage cannot co-operate in a sphere higher than that of the yelling war-dance. The submissive hordes of Eastern despotisms were ranged in ranks under one master, but they did not co-here in mutual activity. There are two conditions under which men associate firmly; the influence of intellectual ideas and moral feelings, such as swayed the Greek communities and the Roman republic; and of religion, which fuses the will of many into One.

Even in Pagan nations these combined secular and religious influences have sufficed to create vigorous social life. But the triumph of co-operation in its more extended moral sense was reserved for Christianity to declare. The commerce of Christian Europe,-of Venice, of Florence, of Holland, showed it in the middle ages in a secular form; the countless pious orders for conversion, for teaching, and for solace, showed it in a religious aspect. In our own Church every day sees some fresh attempt at active combination; and the Methodist "class meetings" express the same need.

It is not without design that I refer to the more strictly moral and religious meaning of the word, because it lies at the basis of the commercial one. Before people can take shares in a coal-mine, appoint a manager, and divide the profits, they must be able to trust each other and the man whom they appoint; they must agree on the principles of trade, and keep their tempers 'one towards the other. It is therefore easy to see that when civil peace is established, and trade principles are pretty much the same in every town, and merchants and traders find their transactions can go on from year to year in peace and quietness, they will naturally begin to think whether they cannot apply the principle of united action to greater profit.

"Accordingly, there is no more certain incident of the progressive change taking place in society, than the continual growth of the principle and practice of co-operation."

Without entering too deeply into the history of the question, we will consider the reasons which first turned the minds of speculative

men in this direction: the first of which is the immense importance now attaching to the production of wealth. It is quite a modern idea, at least in its modern sense. Of course individuals at all times liked riches; plenty to eat, to drink, and to spend; but if they failed to acquire them they acquiesced more quietly than they do now. Commerce ran more in a groove: there was a commercial class, and there were commercial cities par excellence. Every city is now commercial, or struggling to become so. The modern idea of capital was formerly pretty much confined to Jews and Lombards, and burghers of the middle class. Now, every gentleman considers how he may best lay his out to advantage.

But what is the result of money thus rolling over and over, and accumulating like a snowball at every revolution ? There is immensely more gold, also more meat and drink and clothes; and yet somehow the distribution among the increased population is not quite satisfactory; since Mr. Fawcett says in Macmillan's Magazine for October, that the laborer has not as much to eat and drink as he had in the reign of Henry VIII. The money and the food must lie somewhere in drifts; and as neither the aristocracy of rank nor the aristocracy of trade can eat and drink and wear more than a limited amount in a year, it behoves us to seek some method of spreading the necessaries of life over a larger class. When we begin to investigate causes, it appears that one great power underlies all modern trade the power of capital. Plenty of capital, absolute security for that capital, and rapid contrivances to make that capital turn round and double itself at every turn, these are the Articles of Trade.

Now mark the result: the man with capital is not merely a double man, but a tenfold man: he is not merely a man and money, but a moneyed man. His power has increased in a geometrical ratio. If you want the proof, it lies in this, that a man with £100,000 can use up the labor of say five thousand of his fellow-creatures, paying them a fraction of what he gets himself.

Yet what is to be done? His advantage is perfectly fair. He saved his money, and his money has made him equal to ten men. He has made a huge lever, and of course he can lift immense weights. If he chooses to buy up the Highlands and turn off the cottars, you can hardly interfere with him under the present laws of property; and if he takes a freak and shuts up his mill, the workmen must go to the union. Of course it is very unlikely that he will do anything very unreasonable. He has his interests and also his character to consult; and it is possible that he is one of the best of men, and that he and his family are doing all they can for the comfort and instruction of the workpeople. All I wish to point out is, that he actually does possess an enormous power; that thousands of his fellow-creatures are in his hand; and that, in the words of a French thinker, les barons de la Feodalité are only replaced by les barons de l'Industrie.