I. ACCESSORY ARTICLES OF DIET-VARIATIONS OF BODY-METABOLISM UNDER DIF-
FERENT CONDITIONS-POTENTIAL ENERGY OF FOOD-DIETETICS.
Accessory articles of diet, 357-Stimulants, 357-Condiments, flavors, and meat
extracts, 359-Conditions influencing body-metabolism, 359-The effect of muscular
work on metabolism, 359-Metabolism during sleep, 361-The effect of variations in
temperature on body-metabolism, 362-The effect of starvation on body-metabolism,
362- The potential energy of food, 364-The principles of dietetics, 366.
MOVEMENTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL, BLADDER, AND
URETER (By W. H. HOWELL)
The physiology of plain muscle tissue, 369 Mastication, 372-Deglutition, 372-
The Kronecker-Meltzer theory of deglutition, 375-The nervous control of degluti-
tion, 376-Movements of the stomach, 377-The extrinsic nerves controlling the move-
ments of the stomach, 381-Movements of the intestines, 382-The peristaltic move-
ments, 382-Mechanism of the peristaltic movement, 384-Pendular movements of the
intestines, 384-Extrinsic nerves of the intestines, 384-Effect of various conditions
on the intestinal movements, 385-The mechanism of defecation, 386-The act of
vomiting, 387-The nervous mechanism of vomiting, 388-Micturition, 389-Move-
ments of the ureters, 389-Movements of the bladder, 390-Nervous control of the
bladder movements, 392.
RESPIRATION (By EDWARD T. REICHERT)
General statements, internal and external respiration, 395.
A. THE RESPIRATORY MECHANISM IN MAN
Physiological anatomy of the lungs and thorax, 395-Conditions of pressure within
the thorax, 396-Definition of respiration, inspiration, and expiration, 398-Movements
of the diaphragm, 398-Movements of other muscles assisting the diaphragm, 399—
Movements of the ribs, 400-The function of the intercostal muscles, 402-Summary of
the action of the inspiratory muscles, 405- Movements of expiration, 406-Summary
of the action of the expiratory muscles, 407-Associated respiratory movements, 408
-Intrapulmonary and intrathoracic pressure, 408-Respiratory sounds and nasal
breathing, 409.
B. THE GASES IN THE LUNGS, BLOOD, AND TISSUES.
Alterations in the gases in the lungs, 409-Alterations in the gases in the blood, 411-
The forces concerned in the diffusion of O and CO2 in the lungs, 412-The interchange
of O and CO2 between the alveoli and the blood, 414-The tension of O in the blood
and tissues, 415-The tension of CO2 in the blood and tissues, 416-The tension of N,
417-The forces producing the interchange of O and CO2 in the lungs, 417-The
forces producing the interchange of O and CO2 in the tissues, 419-The extraction of
gases from the blood, 420-Cutaneous respiration, 422-Internal or tissue respira-
tion, 422.
The respiratory centres, 455-The rhythmic activity of the respiratory centre, 458-
The afferent respiratory nerves, 460-Effects of section and stimulation of the pneumo-
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THE CHEMISTRY OF THE ANIMAL BODY (BY GRAHAM LUSK) .499
A. THE NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS
The preparation, occurrence, and properties of hydrogen, 499-The preparation,
occurrence, and properties of oxygen, 500-Ozone, 502-Traube's theory of oxidations
in the body, 502--Occurrence, properties, and functions of water, 503-Peroxide of
hydrogen, 505-The preparation, occurrence, and properties of sulphur, sulphuretted
hydrogen, sulphurous and sulphuric acids, 505-Preparation and properties of chlorine,
508-Bromine and its compounds in the body, 508-Iodine and its compounds in the
body, 509-Fluorine and its compounds in the body, 510-Occurrence and properties of
nitrogen and its compounds, 510-Occurrenee of phosphorus, 513-Phosphorus-pois-
oning, 513-Compounds of phosphorus, 514-Phosphorus in the body, 515--Occurrence
of carbon, 516--Compounds of carbon, 517-Metabolism of carbon in the body, 518-
Properties and compounds of silicon, 519-Occurrence and properties of potassium
compounds, 519-Potassium in the body, 520-Occurrence and properties of sodium
and its compounds, 521-Occurrence of ammonium carbonate and its fate in the body,
523-Occurrence and properties of calcium and its compounds, 523-The history of cal-
cium in the body, 525-Occurrence of strontium in the body, 526-Occurrence and prop-
erties of magnesium compounds, 527-The compounds of iron and its history in the
metabolism of the body, 528.
The derivatives of methane, 531-General formula and reactions of the monatomic
alcohols, 531-General formula and reactions of the fatty acids, 532-The properties
and occurrence of methane, 532-Properties of trichlormethane (chloroform), 533-
The properties of methyl aldehyde and general properties of aldehydes, 533-Other
methyl compounds and their action in the body, 534-Properties and occurrence of
formic acid, 534-The properties of ethyl alcohol, 535-The fate of alcohol in the
body, 535-The properties of ethyl ether and chloral hydrate, 535-The properties of
acetic acid, 536-The properties of aceto-acetic acid, 537-The properties of glycocoll
(amido-acetic acid), 537-The properties of sarcosin, 537-Propyl compounds and their
occurrence in the body, 538-Butyl compounds and their occurrence in the body, 539-
Pentyl compounds and their occurrence in the body, 539-Acids containing more than
five carbon atoms (leucin, palmitin, etc.), 540-Amines, their structure and occurrence,
541-The cyanogen compounds, 541-The amines of the olefines (ptomaines, toxines,
etc.), 542-Occurrence and structure of taurin, 543-Occurrence and properties of the
biliary salts, 543-The properties and occurrence of lactic acid, 545-The properties
and occurrence of cystein and cystin, 546-The amido-derivatives of carbonic acid
(urea, carbamic acid), 548--The properties and occurrence of urea, 548-Creatin,
creatinin, histidin, arginin, 550-The purin or alloxuric bodies and bases, 552-Oxalic,
succinic, and aspartic acids, 557-The properties and occurrence of glycerin and its
compounds, 558-The properties and occurrence of lecithin, 559-The history of fats
in the body, 559-The properties of oleic acid, 560.
The structure and classification of carbohydrates, 561-The glycoses, 562—The di-
saccharides, 564-The cellulose group (starch), 565.
BENZOL DERIVATIVES, OR AROMATIC COMPOUNDS.
The benzol ring, 568-Phenol, its structure and occurrence, 569-Benzoic acid, its
structure and occurrence, 569-Tyrosin, its structure and occurrence, 570--Indol, its
structure and occurrence, 571-Epinephrin, its structure and occurrence, 572-The
history of the aromatic bodies in the urine, 572--The structure and history of inosit,
573.
SUBSTANCES OF UNKNOWN COMPOSITION.
The properties and occurrence of hæmoglobin and its compounds, 573-The bile-pig-
ments and the melanins, 574-The properties and occurrence of cholesterin, 575-The
general structure and reactions of proteids, 575-The classification of the proteids,
576-The protamins and remarks upon the theoretical composition of the proteid
molecule, 580.
THE GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCLE AND NERVE (By
WARREN P. LOMBARD).
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (By HENRY H. DONALDSON).
THE SPECIAL SENSES-VISION (By HENRY P. BOWDITCH).
HEARING, CUTANEOUS AND MUSCULAR SENSIBILITY, EQUI-
LIBRIUM, SMELL, AND TASTE (By HENRY SEWALL).
THE PHYSIOLOGY OF SPECIAL MUSCULAR MECHANISMS.
THE ACTION OF LOCOMOTOR MECHANISMS (BY WAR-
REN P. LOMBARD).
VOICE AND SPEECH (By HENRY SEWALL).
REPRODUCTION (By FREDERIC S. LEE).
THE term "physiology" is, in an etymological sense, synonymous with "natural philosophy," and occasionally the word is used with this significance even at the present day. By common usage, however, the term is restricted to the living side of nature, and is meant to include the sum of our knowledge concerning the properties of living matter. The active substance of which living things are composed is supposed to be fundamentally alike in structure in all cases, and is commonly designated as protoplasm (лpro5, first, and doμa, anything formed). It is usually stated that this word was first introduced into biological literature by the botanist Von Mohl to designate the granular semi-liquid contents of the plant-cell. It seems, however, that priority in the use of the word belongs to the physiologist Purkinje (1840), who employed it to describe the material from which the young animal embryo is constructed. In recent years the term has been applied indifferently to the soft material constituting the substance of either animal or plant-cells. The word must not be understood to mean a substance of a definite chemical nature or of an invariable morphological structure; it is applied to any part of a cell that shows the properties of life, and is therefore. only a convenient abbreviation for the phrase "mass of living matter."
Living things fall into two great groups, animals and plants, and corresponding to this there is a natural separation of physiology into two sciences, one dealing with the phenomena of animal life, the other with plant life. In what follows in this introductory section the former of these two divisions is chiefly considered, for although the most fundamental laws of physiology are, without doubt, equally applicable to animal and vegetable protoplasm, nevertheless the `structure as well as the properties of the two forms of matter are in some respects noticeably different, particularly in the higher types of organisms in each group. The most striking contrast, perhaps, is found in the fact that plants exhibit a lesser degree of specialization in form and function and 1 See Mineral Physiology and Physiography, T. Sterry Hunt, 1886. 20. Hertwig: Die Zelle und die Gewebe, 1893.
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