of which 32,764 miles were under the direction of the Ministry of Ways and Communications, 20,111 miles being the property of the Government, 1,791 miles in Finland and mostly belonging to the Government of the grand duchy, 9,591 miles the property of companies, 2,310 miles isolated lines, and 752 miles local railroads. The connected network is formed by 28 lines, besides which there are 7 unconnected lines. The receipts in 1899 from 26,689 miles were 494,639,000 rubles. In 1898 the gross receipts from 24,645 miles were 465,741,008 rubles; expenses of operation, 277,576,194 rubles; net receipts, 188,164,814 rubles; number of passengers carried, 83,708,100; tons of freight, 118,106,000. The cost of construction of the lines belonging to the Government was 2,870,288,752 rubles. The gross receipts of railroads managed by the Government was 322,356,627 rubles in 1898; expenses, 188,160,062 rubles; net receipts, 134,196,565 rubles; interest paid on capital borrowed for the purchase of railroads by the Government, 109,298,623 rubles; net revenue, 24,897,942 rubles. The cost of construction of lines belonging to companies was 1,755,473,310 rubles, the fixed charge for interest was 44,055,116 rubles, the gross receipts were 143,384,381 rubles, and the working expenses were 89,416,132 rubles, leaving a net profit of 9,813,033 rubles. The Government incurred a loss of 30,000,000 rubles in 1889, when three-fourths of the railroad network was owned and managed by companies enjoying subsidies and guarantees, and their expropriation has converted this annual loss into a gain. The great Siberian Railroad is completed to the Chinese frontier, whence it will be carried to VladiVostok through Manchuria, the route originally selected through Russian territory having presented great engineering difficulties in the section between Sryatensk on the Shilka and Pokrovskoye on the Amur and in the valley of the Amur. The company formed to construct and manage the Manchurian Railroad consists of representatives of the Russian Government and Chinese associates selected by the Government of China. Starting from the frontier village of Nagadan, the route passes through Kharbin to Grodekovo and thence to Vladivostok. Engineering difficulties are encountered in the passage across the valley of the Sungari which are not insuperable. Construction of the main line, however, was postponed, while the branch to Dalny and Port Arthur, ports leased from China, was pushed until the antiforeign outbreak in northern China compelled a cessation of the work in 1900. The road was completed from the south as far as Mukden, 295 miles, and on 235 miles in other sections the rails were laid. Parts of the railroad were torn up by the Chinese insurgents and Manchurian robbers before Russia poured troops into Manchuria. The damage done was repaired under military supervision, and the building of the railroad was resumed. The northern section of the line to Port Arthur was completed in the spring of 1901 as far as the Sungari river. The eastern railroad to Vladivostok was pushed forward under the protection of 50,000 soldiers, and was expected to be completed before 1904. American material was used on all the eastern divisions of the Siberian railroad system. The free port privileges of Vladivostok were abolished from Jan. 1, 1901. In central Asia the Kushk Railroad has been extended to Chatil Ducteran, the extreme point of Russian territory in the direction of Herat, and a branch is being made through Penjdeh toward Maruchak. The line from Tashkend to Orenburg was begun in the autumn of

1901.

The post-office in 1898 handled 363,584,732 internal and 45,358,024 foreign letters and postal cards, 15,629,911 internal and 602,196 foreign money-letters, 60,951,870 internal and 19,926,963 foreign book packets, 188,519,102 internal and 7,616,464 foreign periodicals, 4,286,702 internal and 285,309 foreign parcels, and 3,823,363 internal postal orders. The receipts were 26,876,409 rubles and expenses 32,069,350 rubles.

The telegraph-lines on Jan. 1, 1899, had a length of 93,052 miles, with 271,024 miles of wire. The number of messages transmitted in 1898 was 19,217,238. The length of telephone-wire was 35,300 miles, and the number of conversations in 1898 was 103,426,088. Late in 1898 the longdistance wire between St. Petersburg and Moscow was ready.

Tariff War with the United States.-The United States tariff act of 1897 provided that if any country gave, either directly or indirectly, a bounty or grant on the export of any article subject to duty, an additional duty equivalent to such bounty shall be charged on its importation into the United States. Russian sugar was accordingly specially taxed at rates equal to the bounties, ranging from to ruble per poud of 36 pounds. When the Russian Government protested that it paid no bounties, the additional duties were, on April 20, 1900, suspended until inquiries could be made. After ten months they were reimposed at enhanced rates. The Russian Government retorted by applying the maximum tariff to American iron, steel, hardware, machinery, and other articles, which had long enjoyed the minimum Russian tariff. This involved an increase of 30 to 50 per cent. in duties and affected about one-fourth of the American exports to Russia, the annual value of the exports thus brought under the general tariff being about $2,500,000. The Russian exports of sugar to the United States have been insignificant, but production and exportation of sugar have increased rapidly in the last few years. For a short period the Russian Government paid a direct bounty on exported sugar. In 1895 the Government superseded a syndicate in the control of the industry. A prohibitory duty was then imposed on all for eign sugar and an excise duty of 1.75 ruble was levied on all crystallized sugar manufactured. The Government determined for each year the quantity of sugar which manufacturers shall freely put upon the market, and the quantity which must be kept as a reserve to be sold when prices rise above a fixed limit. The surplus beyond these fixed quantities can either be exported, in which case the excise duty will be refunded, or it can be sold in the domestic market on payment of double excise duty. The maximum price for home consumption is always much higher than the cost of production, assuring profits sufficient to cover losses on exports. The price for home consumption in the Kiev market is often three times the export price. Not knowing how much he can sell at these remunerative prices in addition to the fixed quantity of 60,000 pouds which he is free to sell, each manufacturer is encouraged to increase his production, and thus the exportation of a surplus not absorbed in Russia is stimulated. Exports are further encouraged by allowing one manufacturer to transfer to another his rights to sell sugar up to a fixed limit in the domestic market without paying double excise duty, so to secure such transfers some of the manufacturers pay premiums to others to induce them to export their quota. The United States Treasury officials, in March, 1901, withdrew the privilege extended to Russian war-ships

of obtaining provisions from bonded warehouses without payment of duty for the reason that Russia did not grant the same privilege to American war-ships. The question whether the Russian system of sugar rebates acted as a bounty, as the United States Government finally decided, was brought up in the Brussels Sugar Conference of 1898, where it was contended that the limitation of the supply of sugar on the home market, aided by a fixed remunerative selling price, stimulated production, and that the unsold sugar must be exported at less than the cost of production. It was calculated by one of the delegates that it operates as an indirect bounty of 17.60 francs per 100 kilograms. The Russian delegate declared that Russia paid no bounty, but simply refunded the excise duty, and that the Russian legislation was designed to hinder overproduction.

Popular Disturbances.-Industrial depression, monetary stringency, agricultural distress, vexatious Government regulations, and official maladministration produced discontent among all classes of society in 1901 when. the foreign policy of Russia had attained brilliant successes and the empire seemed to have entered on a new career of greatness and expansion. In January, 1901, began a movement among the students more general and more desperate and determined than any that had preceded it. The agitation spread not only among the students of all the universities, but among the townspeople, and the laboring class far and wide showed their sympathy with the students by taking part in their demonstrations. This was very unusual in Russia, where in previous revolts of the students against the university authorities the mob has usually encouraged and helped the police and showed animosity against the students. A secret organization among students with ramifications in all the universities was discovered by the police long before any open demonstrations took place. The object was to secure more liberal university statutes and the abolition of the temporary regulations of 1899. A congress of the secret league was held at Odessa, and when the delegates from all universities were arrested the Government believed it had checked the movement at the start. The obnoxious statutes were not altered, and the application of the temporary regulations at Kiev gave the movement a great impetus. In Kiev the university council condemned some law students to the carcer, or university jail, with the object of intimidating the whole student body, and students of law more particularly because the latter had objected to taking lectures on international law from a professor of criminal law, and the Governor-General on hearing of their complaints had forbidden this incompetent professor to lecture on that subject. The students met in the hall and invited the rector to come and discuss with them the abolition of the punishment of carcer, but he sent for the military, who entered the hall and took the names of 500 students. These were tried before a special court composed of representatives of the university, the police, the army, and the judiciary, and 138 were condemned to be sent into the ranks of the army for one, two, or three years, the only punishment provided by the law of 1899 for cases of insurbordination among the students brought before such a tribunal. The military and judicial delegates voted against this kind of penalty, but the uni versity delegates and those of the Ministry of the Interior prevailed. In consequence of the disturbance the Governor-General of Kiev proclaimed a state of siege. In Moscow, where the general strike of the students began in 1899* stu

dents interrupted lectures, attempted to create disturbances, distributed proclamations, and committed all the usual acts of revolt, for which 300 of them were cited for discipline. The demands of the Russian students were only for somewhat more liberal statutes, some changes in the rules for examinations, the removal of a professor here and there, better treatment by the police, and the annulment of the statute requiring them to wear uniforms. They wished to return to the statutes of 1863 which were changed in 1884 for the stringent and galling regulations that have been resented by the students ever since their enactment. The professors have under the new order become officials of the Government whose tenure of office depends on maintaining discipline. The police regard students as a dangerous and revolutionary class who are hatching conspiracies for the overthrow of the Government, and they look for promotion if they show zeal against such enemies of the state. When the Cossacks are called out these use their knouts unmercifully on the uniformed students wherever they are found, and the students defend themselves by stabbing the horses. Public sympathy, which was averted from the students when nihilism was rife, has turned in their favor. The persecution of the Jews, the Roman Catholics, and the Russian sectaries was felt to be of a piece with the university regulations, and the trammels and vexations of the administration to be a cover for corrup tion. When everybody felt now the pinch of hard times the Government was held responsible. Discontent with the laws and their administration, which formerly was confined to a section of the students and professors, now extended to the commercial class, the working men, the peasants, and the landed proprietors. In the Moscow disturbances the tradespeople and the factory hands, instead of pelting and striking the students as on former occasions, attempted to rescue them from the police. At Kharkov student demonstrations were treated in the same manner as at Kiev. The fermentation in the universities began long before any open demonstration occurred. Bulletins were printed in the various universities and, in spite of the vigilance of the police, were widely distributed, usually by young girls. Nothing more revolutionary was demanded than free activity and liberty of thought. Even the universities of the Baltic provinces were now sufficiently Russianized to take part in the movement. In St. Petersburg the troubles were more serious than in the other cities. When the first manifestation was made by the students 13 of the ringleaders were sent to serve in the army and 30 were expelled. The Kiev students who had been sent to the army refused at first to take the military oath, and the military authorities were unwilling to accept them. M. Bogolepoff and M. Sipyaghin, the Ministers of Education and the Interior, and M. Pobedonost seff were determined to take the most stringent measures to check the movement which seered to be spreading from the students into other ranks of society and threatened to lead to reyution. Governments that yield are governments that fall was the opinion of the Minister of the Interior. M. Witte, the Minister of Fi

ance, and Gen. Vannovsky were rather in favor of conciliatory measures, and so the students believed the Czar to be. On Feb. 27 Peter Karpovich, a former student who had written from Berlin for permission to complete his studies at the University of St. Petersburg and met with a refusal, shot and fatally wounded M. Bogolepoff with a revolver. In Moscow students and workmen together erected barricades, smashed win

to whether the rector and other high officials of the universities should be nominated or elected; as to the steps to be taken to induce the students to work with greater zeal, and to bring about better relations between professors and students; as to the advisability of permitting or establishing students' societies, and of setting up university courts and courts of honor among the students; as to arrangements for teaching and examining the students; and as to the powers to be exercised by the inspectors, the faculties, and the professors. It was recognized that the changes introduced in 1884 placed in the hands of officials of the central administration powers which properly belong to the boards of faculty and to the individual professor. The universities were invited to express their views on the proper competence of the various authorities controlling higher education. The perturbation among the students ceased when it was seen that Gen. Vannovsky was bent on introducing a real reform. Amnesty was granted to the students undergoing punishment for the part they took in the disturbances. Those who were rusticated or expelled were allowed to return and those enrolled in the army were recalled, to the equal satisfaction of the students and the military authorities.

Many thousands of workmen were thrown out of employment by the closing of factories. The Government decided to give them free passage over the railroads to their own villages. A part of them were, however, turned out from the great industrial centers into the neighboring rural districts, and much lawlessness resulted. Arson became frequent in various parts of the empire. Socialistic manifestations took place among the work-people in Poland and in Odessa, Kharkov, St. Petersburg, Moscow, and other Russian cities. Students were found in disguise among the workmen. Wholesale arrests were made in St. Petersburg and elsewhere, and in domiciliary visits evidence was discovered of a socialistic revolutionary propaganda carried on all over the country. Persons of high position, rank, wealth, or reputation were implicated and arrested. Others escaped abroad.

Finland. The grand duchy of Finland when united to Russia in 1809 preserved by grant of the Czar its constitutional form of government. Its legislative body is composed of representatives of Four Estates; the knighthood and nobility, the clergy, the citizens, and the peasants. Laws are prepared by the State Secretariat of Finland in St. Petersburg and submitted to the Four Estates, whose unanimous consent is necessary for amendments to the Constitution or new taxes. The Czar in Finland bears the title of Grand Duke. The Governor-General is Gen. N. Bobrikoff. The grand duchy has its own customs, with modifications recently imposed, its own monetary system, and its state railroads. In 1890 the postal administration was placed under the control of the Russian Minister of the Interior. The military system was independent, and Finnish soldiers were not compelled to serve outside of the grand duchy until obligatory service for five years was introduced in 1899 in accordance with the recommendations of a Russian military commission, against the protest of the Parliament and people. The population was estimated in 1898 at 2,637,130, divided into 1,304,289 men and 1,332,841 women and composed of 2,269,375 Finns, 357,300 Swedes, 7.425 Russians, 1,850 Germans, and 1,180 Lapps. Helsingfors, with Sveaborg, had 85.041 inhabitants. The number of marriages in 1898 was 20,611 of births, 89,106; of deaths, 45,751; excess of births, 43,355.

The revenue for 1899 was estimated at 88,508,916 marks, or francs, including 27,572,513 marks from previous years and 3,000,000 marks from the reserve fund. Expenditure was equal to the revenue, including a balance of 21,959,570 marks left over. Of the revenue 5,871,620 marks were derived from direct and 31,398,000 marks from indirect taxes. The expenditure for civil administration was 10,550,832 marks; for public worship and education, 8,797,188 marks; for the army, 7,557,899 marks; for railroad construction, 14,839,056 marks; for the public debt, 5,070,756 marks. The debt, bearing 3 and 3 per cent. interest, amounted on Jan. 1, 1900, to 115,028,841 marks.

Lakes cover a ninth of the surface of the country. The crop of rye in 1898 was 4,577,967 hectoliters; of wheat, 56,059 hectoliters; of barley, 2,018,328 hectoliters; of oats, 6,712,649 hectoliters; of potatoes, 5,967,731 hectoliters; of flax, 1,694 tons; of hemp, 695 tons. There were 306,890 horses, 118,781 reindeer, 1,484,965 cattle, 1,080,028 sheep, and 224,480 pigs. The Government forests, covering 14,035,067 hectares, yielded a revenue of 2,250,666 marks, less 645,948 marks for working expenses. The production of iron ore in 1898 was 69,140 tons; of pig iron, 26,679 tons; of bar iron, 23,140 tons. The total value of imports in 1899 was 251,000,000 marks, and of exports 184,900,000 marks. The imports of cereals were 53,300,000 marks in value; of iron and iron manufactures, 18,300,000 marks; of machinery, 18,300,000 marks; of woolen manufactures, 12,100,000 marks; of cotton and cotton manufactures, 11,800,000 marks; of sugar, 8,400,000 marks; of coffee, 7,900,000 marks. The exports of timber were 98,200,000 marks; of butter, 23,600,000 marks; of paper and paper pulp, 17,700,000 marks; of iron and iron manufactures, 3,600,000 marks. The imports from and exports to different countries had in marks the following values:

The number of vessels entered at the ports of Finland during 1899 was 8,185, of 1,998,893 tons, of which 5,469, of 851,428 tons, were Finnish ; 693, of 103,426 tons, were Russian; and 2,023, of 1,044,039 tons, were foreign. The number cleared was 8,208, of 2,004,928 tons, of which 5,548, of 865,275 tons, were Finnish; 635, of 93,157 tons, were Russian; and 2,025, of 1,046,496 tons, were foreign. The mercantile marine consisted on Jan. 1, 1900, of 2,020 sailing vessels, of 271,338 tons, and 261 steamers, of 47,008 tons. The length of railroads belonging to the Government on Jan. 1, 1899, was 2,477 kilometers. The number of passengers carried in 1898 was 5,595,914; tons of freight, 1,888.871; capital cost, 217,231,085 marks; receipts, 22,004,274 marks; expenses, 14,385.844 marks. The number of letters and postal cards that passed through the post-office in 1898 was 15,126,163; parcels, 2,922,149; newspapers, 14,792,267; registered letters, 1,129,376; receipts were 2,838,361 marks, and expenses 2,346,761 marks.

In February, 1901, an order came from StateSecretary Plehwe for the delivery of the Finnish Government archives, which would be preserved

henceforth in the public archives at St. Petersburg. The Finnish officials declined to give them up without express permission from the Finnish Senate, but subsequently yielded. On Feb. 18, the anniversary of the promulgation of the manifesto of 1899 announcing that laws dealing with questions affecting imperial interests would be made by the Russian Government after taking the opinion of the Finnish Estates, popular demonstrations and disturbances took place in Helsingfors which had for their consequence the suppression or suspension of many Finnish and Swedish newspapers and the removal of the chief provincial and police officials, who were replaced by Russian military officers in direct violation of the constitutional principle that the administration of Finland shall be carried on with the assistance of native authorities only. The Imperial Government had, however, already made it clear that no provisions of the Finnish Constitution should stand in the way of the Russification of Finland. The military reform scheme, which was the chief cause of the conflict, was modified by the Russian Council of State, mainly on financial grounds presented by M. Witte. The new military service law for Finland, signed by the Czar on July 11, 1901, deprives the Finnish army of its national character, but does not require Finnish conscripts to serve or Finnish battalions to be incorporated in Russian regiments except those stationed in Finland or in the military district of St. Petersburg. Finns who are not required to fill up the Finnish regiments will be assigned to such Russian regiments, and Russians may be assigned to the Finnish regiments, described as regiments the ranks of which are preferably filled up by natives of Finland, and thereby they acquire Finnish citizenship. Russian officers who get commissions in these regiments which are substituted for the national army of Finland have the status of Finnish citizens while so serving. The office of commander-in-chief of the Finnish army is abolished, as well as the Finnish staff, and the command of all the Finnish troops is transferred to the commander-in-chief of the Russian regiments stationed in Finland. Officers and non-commissioned officers in Finnish regiments must possess a complete knowledge of the Russian language. These regiments may in peace or war be required to serve outside of Finland, either in Russia or abroad. The administration of the Finnish troops is transferred from the Finnish Senate to the Russian Ministry of War, who will fix the annual contingent of troops to be raised in Finland.. For the immediate future Finns will not be drafted into Russian regiments, and the burden of military service in Finland will be lessened rather than increased, the number of recruits annually called up for service being diminished. Except the battalion of Finnish life guards and the regiment of dragoons, all the Finnish regiments were disbanded, and in 1901, instead of a contingent of 2,000 recruits, only 500 were called for. The Finnish Senate voted on Aug. 1 for the promulgation of the army law with only 4 dissenting voices out of 14. The Senators appointed by the Czar on the recommendation of Gen. Bobrikoff, the Russian GovernorGeneral, no longer represent Finnish patriotic opinion. A deputation bringing an address in March from 92.000 persons in all parts of Finland was not received by the Senate, the address, calling upon the Senators to resist the military law and the introduction of the Russian customs tariff, being considered seditious. The majority of the Senators held that the decision of the Czar in imperial matters was final. In accepting the

military law the Senate addressed a memorandum to the Czar soliciting his assurance that the political institutions of Finland would be maintained. The Czar replied that the occasion was not suitable for new assurances as to the maintenance of the local institutions, of which his loyal subjects could not be in doubt; that the dissemination of disquieting apprehensions pointed rather to the necessity of maintaining public order by means of administrative measures. The Senators who voted against the promulgation of the military law were summarily dismissed for failure to comply with the Czar's orders. A law is promulgated in Finland by being read from the church pulpits. Most of the Lutheran pastors petitioned the Senate to be excused on conscientious grounds from publishing the military law. In every case where the law was read out from the pulpit the congregation sought to prevent its legal promulgation by leaving the church in a body. The Finnish Diet protested against the Czar's edicts, and the terms of the protest were embodied in a petition signed by 470,000 persons, in which the various infringements on the fundamental laws of the grand duchy that the military service law contains are detailed and declaring that the law would never be recognized as legal and binding by the Finnish people, who could not cease to remain a nation.

Dependencies.-Bokhara, in central Asia, became a vassal state in consequence of a holy war proclaimed against Russia by Muzaffereddin, the late Amir, in 1866. When peace was concluded Russia annexed the province of Syr Daria, and on Sept. 24, 1873, a new treaty was concluded by which the Amir accepted the suzerainty of Rus sia and agreed to admit no foreigner to his dominions not provided with a Russian passport. Seyid Abdul Akhad Khan, the present Amir, born March 26, 1859, succeeded to the throne on Nov. 12, 1885. The Russian resident is W. J. Ignatieff. The area is about 92,000 square miles, with a population estimated at 1,250,000. The city of Bokhara has 75,000 inhabitants. The Amir has an army of 11,000 men. The products of the country are grain, fruits, silk, tobacco, and hemp. The extension of the Russian Transcaspian Railroad to Tashkend traverses Bokhara, passing near the capital. Russian merchants pay a duty of 23 per cent. ad valorem on both imports and exports.

The khanate of Khiva was invaded by a Russian force in 1872 on the ground that the Khivans had aided Kirghiz rebels. Seyid Mohammed Rahim, the Khan, born in 1845, succeeded his father in 1865. By the treaty of Aug. 25, 1873, the Khan renounced the right to enter into treaty relations with foreign powers or with neighboring rulers. The area is about 22,500 square miles, and the population is estimated at 800,000, half of it consisting of nomadic Turcomans. indemnity of 2,750,000 rubles exacted by Russia is being paid in annual instalments, in raising which the Khan frequently incurs the wrath of his subjects and must invoke the aid of Russian troops. His own force is about 2,000 men. Khiva exports annually about 50 tons of raw silk and 8,000 tons of cotton.

The war

By a treaty with China, Port Arthur and Talienwan, with the adjacent country, were leased for a period of twenty-five years, which can be extended by mutual agreement. A ukase of Aug. 28, 1899, created this territory into a Russian province called Kwang-Tung. The civil authority and the command of the military and naval forces is entrusted to the Administrator-General, ViceAdmiral Alexieff. Chinese military forces have