is to say, had a gnathobase or jaw-process on the base of every twenty-one somites in all (as in the higher Crustacea). The somites post-oral appendage.

of the abdomen all may carry rudimentary appendages in the Besides the first post-oral or mandibular pair, at least two succeed embryo, and some of the hinder somites may

retain their appendages ing pairs of appendages are modified as jaws. These have small in a modified

form in adult life. Terminal telescoping of the aband insignificant rami, or none at all, a feature in which the Arach- dominal somites and excalation may occur in the adult, reducing nida differ from them. The appendages of four or more additional the obvious abdominal somites to as few as eight. The genital following somites may be turned upwards towards the mouth and apertures are median and placed far back in the series of somites, assist in the taking of food.

viz. the female on the seventh abdominal (seventeenth

of the whole The more primitive forms (Entomostraca) are anomomeristic, series) and the male on the ninth or ante-penultimate abdominal presenting great variety as to number of somites, form of appendages, (nineteenth of the whole series). The appendages of the eighth and and tagmatic grouping; the higher forms (Malacostraca) are nomo- tenth abdominal somites are modified as gona pophyses. The meristic, showing in front of the telson twenty somites, of which the cleventh abdominal segment is the telson, usually small and soft; six hinder carry swimmerets and the five next in front ambulatory it carries the anus. limbs. The genital apertures are neither far forward nor far back The Hexapoda are not only all confined to a very definite disward in the series of somites, e.g. on the fourteenth post-oral in position of the somites, appendages and apertures, as thus indicated, Apus, on the ninth post-oral in female Astacus and in Cyclops. but in other characters also they present the specialization of a

With rare exceptions, branchial plates are developed either by narrowly-limited highly-developed order of such a class as the modification of a ramus of the limbs or as processes on a ramus, or Crustacea rather than a range from lower more generalized to higher upon the sides of the body. No tracheate Crustacea are known, more specialized forms such as that group and also the Arachnida but some terrestrial Isopoda develop pulmonary in-sinkings of the present. It seems to be a legitimate conclusion that the most integument. A characteristic, comparable in value to that presented primitive Hexapoda were provided with wings, and that the term by the pygidial shield of Arachnida, is the frequent development Pterygota might be used as a synonym of Hexapoda. Many Hexaof a pair of long appendages by the penultimate somite, which with poda have lost either one pair or both pairs of wings; cases are the telson form a trifid, or, when that is small, a bifid termination common of wingless genera allied to ordinary Pterygote genera. to the body.

Some Hexapods which are very primitive in other respects happen The lateral eyes of Crustacea are polymeniscous, with highly to be also Apterous, but this cannot be held to prove that the possesspecialized retinulae like those of Ilexapoda, and unlike the simplersion of wings is not a primitive character of Hexapods (compare compound lateral eyes of lower Arachnida. Monomeniscous eyes are the case of the Struthious Birds). The wings of Hexapoda are lateral rarely present, and when present, single minute,

and central in position. expansions of the terga of the second and third thoracic somites. Note.-The Crustacea exhibit a longer and more complete series They appear to be serial equivalents (homogenous meromes) of the of forms than any other class of Arthropoda, and may be regarded tracheal gills, which develop in a like position on the abdominal as preserving the most completely represented line of descent. segments of some aquatic Hexapods. Class 4.-CHILOPODA.

The Hexapoda are all provided with a highly developed tracheal Head triprosthomerous' and tetartognathous. The two somites stigmata or orifices of communication with the exterior.

system, which presents considerable variation in regard to its following the mandibular or first post-oral or buccal somite carry a serial arrangement of stigmata comparable to that observed in appendages modified as maxillae. The fourth post-oral somite has Chiropoda is found. In other cases (some larvae) stigmata are its appendages converted into very large and powerful hemignaths, absent; -in other cases again a single stigma is developed, as in which are provided with poison-glands. The remaining somites the smaller Arachnida and Chilopoda, in the median dorsal line carry single-clawed walking legs, a single pair to each somite. The or other unexpected position. When the facile tendency of Arthrobody is anomomeristic, showing in different genera from 17 (inclusive poda to develop tracheal air-tubes is admitted, it becomes

probable of the anal and genital) to 175 somites behind that which bears the that the tracheae of Hexapods do not all belong to one original poison jaws. No tagmata are developed. The genital ducts open system, but may be accounted for by new developments within the

"Tracheae are developed which are dendriform and with spiral closed one or open by serial stigmata in every somite remains at thickening of their lining. Their trunks open at paired stigmata placed laterally in each somite

of the trunk or in alternate somites present doubtful, but the intimate relation of the system to the Usually the tracheae open by paired stigmata placed upon the sides wings and tracheal gills cannot be overlooked. of a greater or less number of the somites, but never quite regularly the most specialized type of compound eye." found only

in these

The lateral eyes of Hexapoda, like those of Crustacea, belong to on alternating somites. At most they are present on all the pedí- two classes. Simple monomeniscous eyes are also present in many gerous somites excepting the first and the last. In Scutigera there

Hexapods. are seven unpaired dorsal stigmata, each leading into a sac whence a number of air-holding tubes project into the pericardial blood-sinus. proctodaeum (not from mesenteron as in scorpion and Amphipoda).

Renal excretory cacca (Malpighian tubes) are developed from the Renal caecal tubes (Malpighian tubes) open into the proctodaeum.

Concluding Remarks on the Relationships to one another of the Classes (See CENTIPEDE.)

of the Arthropoda. -Our general conclusion from a survey of the Class 5.-HexA PODA.

Arthropoda amounts to this, that whilst Peripatus, the Diplopoda, Head shown by its early development to be triprosthomerous and the Arachnida represent terrestrial offshoots from successive and consequently tetartognathous. The first prosthomere has its lower grades of primitive aquatic Arthropoda which are extinct, the appendages represented by the compound eyes and a protocerebrum, Crustacca alone present a fairly full series of representatives

leading the second has the antennae for its appendages and a deutocerebral upwards from unspecialized forms. The latter were not very far neuromere, the third has suffered suppression of its appendages removed from the aquatic ancestors (Trilobites) of the Arachnida, (which corresponded to the second pair of antennae of Crustacea), but differed essentially from them by the higher specialization of but has a tritocerebrum and coelomic

chamber. The mandibular the head. We can gather no indication of the forefathers of the somite bears a pair of gnathobasic hemignaths without rami or Hexapoda or of the Chilopoda less specialized than they are, whilst palps, and is followed by two jaw-bearing somites (maxillary and possessing the essential characteristics of these classes. Neither labial). This enumeration would give six somites in all to the head embryology nor palacontology assists us in this direction. On the --three prosthomeres and three opisthomeres. Recent investigations other hand, the facts that the Hexapoda and the Chilopoda have (Folsoni, 4) show the existence in the embryo of a prac-maxillary triprosthomerous heads, that the Hexapoda have the same total or supra-lingual somite which is suppressed during development. number of somites as the nomomeristic Crustacea, and

the same This gives seven somites to the Hexapod's head, the tergites of which number of opisthomeres in the head as the more terrestrial Crustacea, are fused to form a cephalic carapace or box. The number is signifi- together with the same adaptation of the form of important appencant, since it agrees with that found in Edriophthalmous Crustacea, dages in corresponding somites, and that the compound eyes of both and assigns the labium of the Hexapod to the same somite numeri- Crustacea and Hexapoda are extremely specialized and claborate in cally as that which carries the labium-like maxillipedes of those structure and identical in that structure, all lead to the suggestion Crustacea.

that the Hexapoda, and with them, at no distant point, the ChiloThe somites following the head are strictly nomomeristic and poda, have branched off from the Crustacean

main stem as specialized nomotagmic. The first three form the thorax, the appendages of terrestrial lines of descent. And it seems probable that in the case which are the walking legs, tipped with paired claws or ungues of the Hexapoda, at any rate, the point of departure was subsequent (compare the homoplastic claws of Scorpio and Peripatus)... Eleven to the attainment of the nomomeristic character presented by the somites follow these, forming the abdominal" tagma," giving thus higher grade of Crustacea. It is on the whole desirable to recognize classes of Arthropoda we have more or less complete embryological and Arthropoda as follows: Embryological evidence of this is still wanting. In the other such affinities in our schemes of classification.

We may tabulate the facts as to head-structure in Chaetopoda cvidence on the subject. It appears from

observation of the embryo that whilst the first prosthomere of Centipedes has its appendages Grade < (below the Arthropoda).-AGNATHA, A PROSTHOMERA. reduced and represented only by eye-patches (as in Arachnida, Without parapodial jaws; without the addition of originally Crustacea and Hexapoda),

the second has a rudimentary antenna, post-oral somites to the prae-oral region, which is a simple prostomial which disappears, whilst the third carries the permanent antennae, lobe of the first somite; the first somite is perforated by the mouth and are absent in Hexapoda. which accordingly correspond to the second antennae of Crustacea, and its parapodia are not modified as jawp

+CHAETOPODA

noted, rides on purely chivalric ventures, such as afding distressed to the elaboration of the material supplied by the chronicles, the damsels, seeking the Grail, &c. His expeditions are all more or beginning of Arthur's reign, his marriage and wars with the Saxons, less warlike. The story of his youth belongs, as Alfred Nutt Saxons bear names of Saracen origin, and camels and elephants (Folk-lore, vol. iv.) has shown, to the group of tales classified as the Aryan Expulsion and Return formula, found in all Aryan metrical romance, of which a unique English version exists in the lands. Numerous parallels exist between the Arthurian and Thornton collection (ed. for Early English Text Society), gives an early Irish heroic cycles, notably the Fenian or Ossianic. This it is now always found incorporated with the Lancelol, of which it Fenian cycle is very closely connected with the Tuatha de forms the concluding section. The remains of the Welsh tradition Danaan, the Celtic deities of vegetation and increase; recent are to be found in the Mabinogion (cf. Nutt's edition, where the research has shown that two notable features of the Arthurian stories are correctly classified), and in the Triads. Professor Rhys story, the Round Table and the Grail, can be most reasonably and may be consulted for details, though

the conclusions drawn accounted for as survivals of this Nature worship, and were are not in harmony with recent research. These are the only texts probably parts of the legend from the first.

in which Arthur is the central figure; in the great bulk of the Romantic. The character of Arthur as a romantic hero is, in romances his is but a subordinate rôle.

(J. L. W.) reality, very different from that which, mainly through the ARTHUR I.(1187-1 203), duke of Brittany, was the posthumous popularity of Tennyson's Idylls, English people are wont to son of Geoffrey, the fourth son of Henry II. of England, and suppose. In the earlier poems he is practically a lay figure, his Constance, heiress of Conan IV., duke of Brittany. The Bretons court the point of departure and return for the knights whose hoped that their young prince would uphold their independence, adventures are related in detail, but he himself a passive spectator. which was threatened by the English. Henry II. tried to seize In the prose romances he is a monarch, the splendour of whose Brittany, and in 1187 forced Constance to marry one of his court, whose riches and generosity, are the admiration of all; favourites, Randulph de Blundevill, earl of Chester (d. 123a). but morally he is no whit different from the knights who surround Henry, however, died soon afterwards (1189). The new king of him; he takes advantage of his bonnes fortunes as do others. England, Richard Cour de Lion, claimed the guardianship of He has two sons, neither of them born in wedlock; one, Modred, the young Arthur, but in 1190 Richard left for the Crusade. is alike his son and his nephew. In certain romances, the Constance profited by his absence by governing the duchy, and Perlesvaus and Diu Crône, he is a veritable roi fainéant, over- in 1194 she had Arthur proclaimed duke of Brittany by an come by sloth and luxury. Certain traits of his story appear to assembly of barons and bishops. Richard invaded Brittany in show the influence of Northern romance. Such is the story of his 1196, but was defeated in 1197 and became reconciled to Conbegetting, where Uther takes upon him the form of Gorlois to stance. On his death in 1189, the nobles of Anjou, Maine and deceive Yguerne, even as Siegfried changed shapes with Gunther Touraine refused to recognize John of England, and did homage to the undoing of Brünnhilde: The sword in the perron (stone to Arthur, who declared

himself the vassal of Philip Augustus. pillar or block), the withdrawal of which proves his right to the In 1202 war was resumed between the king of England and the kingdom, is the sword of the Branstock. Morgain carries him off, king of France. The king of France recognized Arthur's right mortally wounded, to Avalon, even as the Valkyr bears the to Brittany, Anjou, Maine and Poitou. While Philip Augustus Northern hero to Valhal

. Morgain herself has many traits in was invading Normandy, Arthur tried to seize Poitou. But, common with the Valkyric; she is one of nine sisters, she can fly surprised at Mirebeau, he fell into the hands of John, who sent through the air as a bird (Swan maiden); she possesses a marvel- him prisoner to Falaise In the following year he was transferred lous ointment (as does Hilde, the typical Valkyr). The idea of a to Rouen, and disappeared suddenly. It is thought that John slumbering hero who shall awake at the hour of his country's killed bim with his own hand. After this murder John was greatest need is world-wide, but the most famous instances condemned by the court of peers of France, and stripped of the are Northern, e.g. Olger Danske and Barbarossa, and depend fiefs which he possessed in France. ultimately on an identification with the gods of the Northern See Ralph of Coggeshall, Chronicon Anglicanum,” in the Pantheon, notably Thor. W. Larminic cited an instance of a

Monumenta Britanniae historica; Dom Lobineau, Histoire de rhyme current in the Orkneys as a charm against nightmare, A. de la Borderie, Histoire de Bretagne, vol. jii. (1899): Bemont,

Bretagne (1702); Dom Morice, Histoire de Bretagne (1742–1756); which confuses Arthur with Sicgfried and his winning of the De la condamnation de Jean-sans-Terre par la Cour des Pairs de Valkyr.

France," in the Revue historique (1886), vol. xxxii. Fairy.-We find that at Arthur's birth (according to Layamon, ARTHUR III. (1393-1458), earl of Richmond, constable of who here differs from Wace), thrce ladies appeared and prophe- France, and afterwards duke of Brittany, was the third son of sied his future greatness. This incident is also found in the first John IV., duke of Brittany, and Joan of Navarre, afterwards the continuation to the Perceral, where the prediction is due to a wise of Henry IV. of England. His brother, John V., gave him lady met with beside a forest spring, clearly here a water fairy. I his earldom of Richmond in England. While still very young, In the late romance of La Bataille de Loquifer Avalon has become he took part in the civil wars which desolated France during the a purely fairy kingdom, where Arthur rules in conjunction with reign of Charles VI. From 1410 to 1414 he served on the side Morgain. In Huon de Bordeaux he is Oberon's heir and successor, of the Armagnacs, and afterwards entered the service of Louis the while in the romance of Brun de la Montagne, preserved in a dauphin, whose intimate friend 'he became. He profited by his unique MS. of the Bibliothèque Nationale, we have the curious position at court to obtain the lieutenancy of the Bastille, the statement that all fairy-haunted places, wherever found, belong governorship of the duchy of Nemours, and the confiscated to Arthur

territories of Jean Larchevêque, seigneur of Parthenay, His "Et touz ces lieux faés

efforts to reduce the latter were, however, interrupted by the Sont Artus de Bretagne." This brief summary of the leading features of the Arthurian was wounded and captured, and remained a prisoner in England

necessity of marching against the English. At Agincourt he tradition will indicate with what confused and complex material from 1415 to 1420. Released on parole, he gained the favour of we are here dealing. (See also ARTHURIAN LEGEND, GRAIL, King Henry V. by persuadir.g his brother, the duke of Brittany, MERLIN, ROUND TABLE; and Celt: Celtic literature.)

to conclude the treaty of Troyes, by which France was handed Texts. Historic:- Nennius, Historia Brilonum; H., Zimmer, over to the English king. He was rewarded with the countship Nennius Vindicatus (Berlin, 1893), an examination into the credi: of Ivry (translations of both histories are in Bohn's Library): Wace, the

In 1423 Arthur married Margaret of Burgundy, widow of the Brut (ed. by Leroux de Lincey): Layamon (ed. by Sir Fred.

Madden). dauphin Louis, and became thus the brother-in-law of Philip Romantic:

Merlin-alike in the Ordinary, or Vulgate (ed. the Good of Burgundy, and of the regent, the duke of Bedford. (ed. by G. Paris and J. Ulrich), and the unpublished and unique Offended, however, by Bedford's refusal to give him a high version of Bibl. nat. Jonds français, 337. (cf. Freymond's

analysis command, he severed his connexion with the English, and in in Zeitschrift für frans. Sprache, xxii.)

--devotes considerable space March 1425 accepted the constable's sword from King Charles VII.

He now threw himself with ardour into the French cause, and son Chester was born not in Vermont, but in Canada, and was persuaded his brother, John V. of Brittany, to conclude with therefore ineligible for the presidency. Chester entered Union Charles VII. the treaty of Saumur (October 7, 1425). But College as a sophomore, and graduated with honour in 1848. though he saw clearly enough the measures necessary for success, He then became a schoolmaster, at the same time studying law. he lacked the means to carry them out. In the field he met with In 1853 he entered a law office in New York city, and in the a whole series of reverses; and at court, where his rough and following year was admitted to the bar. His reputation as a overbearing manners made him disliked, his influence was over- lawyer began with his connexion with the famous "Lemmon shadowed by that of a series of incompetent favourites. The slave case," in which, as one of the special counsel for the state, peace concluded between the duke of Brittany and the English he secured a decision from the highest state courts that slaves in September 1427 led to his expulsion from the court, where brought into New York while in transit between two slave states Georges de la Trémoille, whom he himself had recommended to were ipso facto free. In another noted case, in 1855, he obtained the king, remained supreme for six years, during which Richmond a decision that negroes were entitled to the same accommodations tried in vain to overthrow him. In the meantime, in June 1429, he as whites on the street railways of New York city. In politics joined Joan of Arc at Orleans, and fought in several battles under he was actively associated from the outset with the Republican her banner, till the influence of La Trémoille forced his with party. When the Civil War began he held the position of drawal from the army. On the 5th of March 1432 Charles VII. cnginecr-in-chief on Governor Edwin D. Morgan's staff, and concluded with him and with Brittany the treaty of_Rennes; afterwards became successively acting quartermaster-general, but it was not until June of the following year that La Trémoille inspector-general, and quartermaster-general of the state troops, was overthrown. Arthur now resumed the war against the in which capacities he showed much administrative efficiency. English, and at the same time took vigorous measures against At the close of Governor Morgan's term, on the 31st of December the plundering bands of soldiers and peasants known as routiers 1862, General Arthur resumed the practice of his profession, or écorcheurs. On the 20th of September 1435, mainly as a result remaining active, however, in party politics in New York city. of his diplomacy, was signed the treaty of Arras between Charles In November 1871 he was appointed by President U. S. Grant VII. and the duke of Burgundy, to which France owed her collector of customs for the port of New York. The customsalvation.

house had long been conspicuous for the most flagrant abuses of On the 13th of April 1436, Arthur took Paris from the English; the "spoils system "; and though General Arthur admitted that but he was ill seconded by the king, and hampered by the the evils existed and that they rendered efficient administration necessity for leading frequent expeditions against the écorckcurs; impossible, he made no extensive reforms. In 1877 President it was not till May 1444 that the armistice of Tours gave him Rutherford B. Ilayes began the reform of the civil service with leisure to carry out the reorganization of the army which he had the New York custom-house. A non-partisan commission, long projected. Jle now created the compagnies d'ordonnance, appointed by Secretary John Sherman, recommended sweeping and endeavoured to organize the militia of the francs archers. changes. The president demanded the resignation of Arthur

This reform had its effect in the struggles that followed. In and his two principal subordinates, George H. Sharpe, the alliance with his nephew, the duke of Brittany, he reconquered, surveyor, and Alonzo B. Cornell, the naval officer, of the Port. during September and October 1449, nearly all the Cotentin; General Arthur refused to resign on the ground that to retire on the 15th of April 1450 he gained over the English the battle of under fire ” would be to acknowledge wrong-doing, and Formigny; and during the year he recovered for France the claimed that as the abuses were inherent in a widespread system whole of Normandy, which for the next six or seven years it was he should not be made to bear the responsibility alone. His his task to defend from English attacks. On the death of his cause was espoused by Senator Roscoe Conkling, for a time nephew Peter II., on the 22nd of September 1457, he became successfully; but on the 11th of July 1878, during a recess of duke of Brittany, and though retaining his office of constable of the Senate, the collector was removed, and in January 1879, France, he refused, like his predecessors, to do homage to the after another severe struggle, this action received the approval French king for his duchy. He reigned little more than a year, of the Senate. In 1880 General Arthur was a delegate at large dying on the 26th of December 1458, and was succeeded by his from New York to the Republican national convention. In nephew Francis II., son of his brother Richard, count of common with the rest of the “Stalwarts," he worked hard for Etampes.

the nomination of Gen. U. S. Grant for a third term. Upon the Arthur was three times married: (1) to Margaret of Burgundy, triumph of James A. Garfield, the necessity of conciliating the duchess of Guienne (d. 1442); (2) to Jeanne d'Albret, daughter defeated faction led to the hasty acceptance of Arthur for the of Charles II. of Albret (d. 1444); (3) to Catherine of Luxemburg, second place on the ticket. His nomination was coldly received daughter of Peter of Luxemburg, count of St Pol, who survived by the public; and when, after his election and accession, he him. He left no legitimate children.

actively engaged on behalf of Conkling in the great conflict with AUTHORITIES.- The main source for the life of Duke Arthur III, Garfield over the New York patronage, the impression was entered the service of the earl of Richmond about 1425, shared in widespread that he was unworthy of his position. Upon the all his campaigns, and lived with him on intimate terms.

The death of President Garfield, on the 19th of September 1881, chronicle covers the whole period of the duke's life, but the earlier Arthur took the oath as his successor. Contrary to the general part, up to 1425. is much less full and important than the later, expectation, his appointments were as a rule unexceptionable, spite of a perhaps exaggerated admiration for his hero, Gruel dis" and he earnestly promoted the Pendleton law for the reform of plays in his work so much good faith, insight and originality that the civil service. Ilis use of the veto in 1882 in the cases of a he is accepted as a thoroughly trust worthy authority. It was first Chinese Immigration Bill (prohibiting immigration of Chinese published at Paris in 16922. Of the numerous later editions, the best for twenty years) and a River and Harbour Bill (appropriating (Paris. 1890). See also E. Cosneau, Le Connétable de Richemont over $18,000,000, to be expended on many insignificant as well (Paris, 1886); G. du Fresne de Beaucourt, llistoire de Charles VII. as important streams) confirmed the favourable impression (Paris, 1881, seq.).

which had beea made. The most important events of his ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN (1830-1886), twenty - first administration were the passage of the Tariff Act of 1883 and president of the United States, was born in Fairfield, Vermont, of the " Edmunds Law" prohibiting polygamy in the territories, on the 5th of October 1830. His father, William Arthur (1796- and the completion of three great trans-continental railways1875), when eighteen years of age, emigrated from Co. Antrim, the Southern Pacific, the Northern Pacific, and the Atchison, Ireland, and, after teaching in various places in Vermont and Topeka & Santa Fé. His administration was lacking in political Lover Canada, became a Baptist minister. William Arthur situations of a dramatic character, but on all questions that arose had married Malvina Stone, an American girl who lived at the his policy was sane and dignified. In 1884 he allowed his name time of the marriage in Canada, and the numerous changes of the to be presented for renomination in the Republican convention. family residence afforded a basis for allegations in 1880 that the I but he was easily defeated by the friends of James G. Blalle. At the expiration of his term he resumed his residence in New Wace and Layamon (see ARTHUR), poetic: the works of York city, where he died on the 18th of November 1886. Chrétien de Troyes, Thomas, Raoul de Houdenc and others (see For an account of his administration sce UNITED STATES: History. GAWAIN, PERCEVAL, TRISTAN, and the writers named above),

ARTHURIAN LEGEND. By the “Arthurian legend," or prose: the largest and most important group (see GRAIL, Matière de Bretagne, we mean the subject matter of that import- LANCELOT, MERLIN, TRISTAN). Of these three branches the ant body of medieval literature known as the Arthurian cycle prose romances offer the most insuperable problems; none can (sec Arthur). The period covered by the texts in their present be dated with any certainty; all are of enormous length; and form represents, roughly speaking, the century 1150-1250. The all have undergone several redactions. Of not one do we as yet History of Nennius is, of course, considerably earlier, and that of possess a critical and comparative text, and in the absence of Geoffrey of Monmouth somewhat antcdates 1150 (1136), but such texts the publication of any definite and detailed theory as with these exceptions the dates above given will be found to to the evolution and relative position of the separate branches of cover the composition of all our extant texts.

the Arthurian cycle is to be deprecated. The material is so vast As to the origin of this Matière de Bretagne, and the circum- in extent, and in so chaotic a condition, that the construction stances under which it became a favourite theme for literary of any such theory is only calculated to invite refutation and treatment, two diametrically opposite theories are held. One discredit body of scholars, headed by Professor Wendelin Förster of Bonn, Paris's manual La Littérature française au moyen âge(new and revised

The best general study of the cycle is to be found in Gaston while admitting that, so far as any historic basis can be traced, | edition, 1905). See also the introduction to vol. xxx. of Histoire the events recorded must have happened on insular ground, littéraire de la France. For the theories as to origin, see the Intromaintain that the knowledge of these events, and their romantic ductions to Professor Förster's editions of the poems of Chrétien development, are due entirely to the Bretons of the continent. de Troyes, notably that to vol. iv., Der Karrenritter, which is a long The British who fled before the Teutonic and Scandinavian articles in Gollingische

gelehrte Anzeigen, 12 and 20. For the Inşular invasions of the 6th and 8th centurics, had carried with them to view, Ferd. Lot's " Études sur la provenance du cycle arthurien," Armorica, and fondly cherished, the remembrance of Arthur and Romania, vols. xxiv -xxviii.,

are very valuable. For a popular his deeds, which in time had become interwoven with traditions treatment of the subject, cf. Nos. i. and iv. of Popular Studies in of purely Breton origin. On the other side of the Channel, i.e. Romance and Folk-lore (Nutt).

Robert Huntington Fletcher's in Arthur's own land, these memories had died out, or at most studies and Noles in Philology and Literature), is a most useful survived only as the faint echo of historic tradition. Through summary.

(J. L. W.) the medium of French-speaking Bretons these tales came to the ARTICHOKE. The common artichoke, Cynara, scolymus, cognizance of Northern French poets, notably Chrétien de Troyes, is a plant belonging to the natural order Compositae, having who wove them into romances. According to Professor Förster some resemblance to a large thistle. It has long been esteemed there were no Arthurian romances previous to Chrétien, and as a culinary vegetable; the parts chiefly employed being the equally, of course, no insular romantic tradition. This theory immature receptacle or floret disk, with the lower part of the reposes mainly on the supposed absence of pre-Chrétien poems, surrounding leaf-scales, which are known as "artichoke bottoms." and on the writings of Professor H. Zimmer, who derives the In Italy the receptacles, dried, are largely used in soups; those of Arthurian names largely from Breton roots. This represents the cultivated plant as Carciofo domestico, and of the wild variety the prevailing standpoint of German scholars, and may be called as Carciofo spinoso. the "continental ” theory. In opposition to this the school of The Jerusalem artichoke, Helianthus tuberosus, is a distinct which the late Gaston Paris was the leading, and most brilliant, plant belonging to the same order, cultivated for its tubers. representative, maintains that the Arthurian tradition, romantic it closely resembles the sunflower, and its popular name is a equally with historic, was preserved in Wales through the corruption of the Italian Girasole Articiocco, the sunflower medium of the bards, was by them communicated to their artichoke. It is a native of Canada and the north-eastern Norman conquerors, worked up into poems by the Anglo- United States, and was cultivated by the aborigines. The Normans, and by them transmitted to the continental poets. tubers are rich in the carbohydrate inulin and in sugar. This, the "insular" theory, in spite of its inherent probability, The name is derived from the northern Italian articiocce, has hitherto been at a disadvantage through lack of positive or arciciocco, modern carciofo; these words come, through the evidence, but in a recently acquired MS. of the British Museum, Spanish, from the Arabic al-kharshús. False etymology has Add. 36614, we find the first continuator of the Perceval, corrupted the word in many languages: it has been derived in Wauchier de Denain, quoting as authority for stories of Gawain English from "choke," and "heart," or the Latin hortus, a a certain Bleheris, whom he states to have been" born and bred garden; and in French, the form artichaut has been connected in Wales.” The identity of this Blcheris with the Bledhericus with chaud, hot, and chou, a cabbage. mentioned by Giraldus Cambrensis as Famosus ille fabulator, ARTICLE (from Lat. arliculus, a joint), a term primarily for living at a bygone and unspecified date, and with the Bréri that which connects two parts together, and so transferred to quoted by Thomas as authority for the Tristan story, has been the parts thus joined, thus the word is used of the separate fully accepted by leading French scholars. Further, on the clauses or heads in contracts, treaties or statutes and the like; evidence of certain MSS. of the Perceval, notably the Paris MS. of a literary composition on some specific subject in a periodical; (Bibl. Nat. 1450), it is clear that Chrétien was using, and using or of particular commodities, as in “ articles of trade and comfreely, the work of a predecessor, large fragments of which have merce.” It appears also in the phrase "in the article of death * been preserved by the copyists who completed his unfinished to translate in articulo mortis, at the moment of death. In work The evidence of recent discoveries is all in favour of the grammar the term is used of the adjectives which state the exinsular, or French, view.

tension of a substantive, i.e. the number of individuals to which So far as the character, as distinguished from the provenance, a name applies; the indefinite article denoting one or any of of this subject-matter is concerned, it is largely of folk-lore a particular class, the definite denoting a particular member of origin, representing the working over of traditions, in some cases a class. (as e.g. in the account of Arthur's birth and upbringing) common ARTICLES OF ASSOCIATION, in English company law, the to all the Aryan peoples, in others specifically Celtic. Thus regulations for the internal management of a joint stock company there are a number of parallels between the Arthurian and the registered under the Companies Acts. They are, in fact, the Irish heroic cycles, the precise nature of which has yet to be terms of the partnership agreed upon by the shareholders among determined. So far as Arthur himself is concerned these parallels themselves. They regulate such matters as the transfer and are with the Fenian, or Ossianic, cycle, in the case of Gawain forfeiture of shares, calls upon shares, the appointment and with the Ultonian.

qualification of directors, their powers and proceedings, general In its literary form the cycle falls into three groups-pseudo-meetings of the shareholders, votes, dividends, the keeping and historic: the Histories of Nennius and Geoffrey, the Brut of audit of accounts, and other such matters. In regard to these