Among mechanics, the inch is usually divided into eighths; but in scientific investigations it is mostly divided into tenths, hundredths, &c. A degree of the equator contains 69.15 English miles. The English foot=3048 metres of France =984 feet of Berlin-1064 feet of Hamburgh=927 feet of Lisbon Rhineland feet=8727 feet of Russia = 1078 feet of Spain= 9638 feet of Vienna, &c.

Inches.

Superficial Measure, deduced from the Standard Yard.

= •972

Links.

The imperial acre is to the Scotch acre as 1 to 1261, and the Irish, or plantation, acre contains 1 acre 2 roods and 19 poles; hence 30 Irish are equal to 49 imperial acres, or the imperial acre is to the Irish acre as 1 to 162. One imperial acre= ⚫4046 hectares of France-1.561 morgen of Prussia=7025 joch of Austria, &c.

2. Measures of Capacity. - Imperial Liquid and Dry Measure, deduced from the Standard Gallon, containing 10 lbs. Weight of Distilled Water, at the temperature of 62°, Barometer 30 inches.

L

Gills.

Pints.

Quarts.

Pottles.

Gallons.

320

5.1347 8,872:763 1,024 256 128

64

32

16

4 1

1

640 10.2694 17,745.526 2,048 512 256 128 64 32 8 2

The old wine gallon contained 231, and the old ale gallon 282, cubic inches. The dimensions of the imperial bushel are the outer diameter 191 inches, the inner diameter 18 inches, and the depth 8 inches. The Winchester bushel, which used to be the most common measure for corn in England, contained 2,150·42 cubic inches, being about part less than the Imperial bushel. The quarter of 8 bushels standard measure 2.907 hectolitres of France = 5.29 bushels of Berlin =2.76 bushels of Hamburgh=4728 metzen of Vienna 145 chetwerts of Russia, &c.

3. Measures of Weight. Troy Weight, deduced from the Standard Troy Pound of

Gold, silver, platina, jewels, &c. are weighed by troy weight.

It is likewise used

in ascertaining the strength of spirituous liquors, and other philosophical experiments, and for comparing different weights with each other. 373-202 grammes of France

=

The pound troy 1.597 marcs of Berlin 9116 lbs. of Russia

=

755 lbs. of Amsterdam

77 lbs. of Hamburgh = 3732 kilogrammes (French) 1.622 marcs of Spain = 1.33 marcs of Vienna, &c. A carat is a weight of 4 troy grains. When this term is applied to gold, it denotes its degree of fineness. Any quantity of gold is supposed to be divided into 24 parts or carats: if the whole mass be pure, it is said to be 24 carats fine; if there be 23 parts of pure metal and 1 part of alloy, it is called gold of 23 carats fine; and so on.

Diamond Weight.

Diamonds and pearls are also weighed by carats of four graius; but 5 diamond grains are only equal to 4 troy grains. This weight is nearly the same all over the globe, — 1 oz. troy is equal to 150 diamond carats.

The apothecaries' pound and ounce are the same as the troy pound and ounce, but the smaller divisions are different.

This weight is used in medical prescriptions

Deduced from the Imperial Standard Pound of 7,000 Troy Grains.

The statute 5 and 6 Will. 4. cap. 63. enacts, that all articles sold by weight are to be sold by avoirdupois weight, except gold, silver, platina, diamonds, or other precious stones, which may be sold by troy weight; and drugs, which, when sold by retail, may be sold by apothecaries' weight. The stone is in all cases to consist of 14 lbs. avoirdupois, the cwt. of 8 such stones, and the ton of 20 such cwts. 453.544 grammes of France = 97 lbs. of Berlin 9363 lbs. of Hamburgh = 50796 kilogrammes (French) 8097 lbs. of Vienna, &c.

The pound avoirdupois 908 lbs. of Copenhagen = 1.11 lbs. of Russia =

=

=

Bread and Flour Weight.

=

Note.. A peck of flour is 14 lbs. ; a bushel of flour is 56 lbs. ; a boll 140 lbs. A sack, or 3 bushels, is 280 lbs., or 2 cwt. avoirdupois.

Hence a load of straw weighs 11 cwt.; a load of old hay 18 cwt.; a load of new hay 194 cwt. avoirdupois.

By act 36 Geo. 3. cap. 88., each truss of hay, sold between 31st of August in any year and 1st of June in the succeeding year, must weigh 56 lbs. ; and every truss of hay sold between 1st of June and 31st August, being new hay of the summer's grass of that year, shall weigh 60 lbs. But by the act 5 & 6 Will. 4. cap. 63. all local and customary measures are abolished.

A pack of wool is 12 score, or 240 lbs. avoirdupois. In Gloucestershire, 15 lbs. made a stone of wool; while in Hertfordshire the stone was only 12 lbs. ; but, as already stated, these local weights are now abolished.

3. ROADS.-Highways of one sort or another must, of course, exist in every country emerged from barbarism; but in England, the statute 2 & 3 Philip and Mary, c. 8., is the first legislative enactment in which a regular provision was made for the repair of the roads. At common law every parish was bound to keep the roads that intersect it in good serviceable condition. But until the epoch now mentioned, this duty, not being devolved upon any particular person, was very much neglected. The preamble to the act of Philip and Mary declares, that the roads were tedious and noisome to travel on, and dangerous to passengers and carriages; and, therefore, it enacts that in every parish two surveyors of the highways shall be annually chosen by the inhabitants in vestry assembled, and that the inhabitants of all parishes shall be obliged, according to their respective ability, to provide -labourers, carriages, tools, &c., for four days each year, to work upon the roads under the orders of the surveyors. This system, though in many respects very defective, was justly regarded at the time as a very great improvement. The great lines of road have, indeed, been long exempted from its operation; but the construction,

repair, and police of the cross or parish roads through England continue to this day to be regulated on the principles laid down in the above act.

The plan of making and repairing roads by contributions of forced labour, though established in most other European countries as well as England, is, in all respects, one of the worst that can be imagined. Its defects were long since perceived, and individuals subject to such contribution were allowed to compound with the surveyors on payment of certain rates. This system, is now, however, wholly abandoned. In 1835 the laws relating to cross or parish roads in England were consolidated by the statute 5 & 6 Will. 4. c. 50. This act authorises the surveyor, appointed by the vestry, to levy a rate on the parish, on the basis of the assessment for the poor; and it further authorises the rate-payers, if a majority of them shall see fit, to divide among themselves the carriage of the materials for the repair of the roads, being paid for such work at the discretion of the justices. Hence, the rate-payers who now engage to work upon the roads are as much voluntary contractors as if they belonged to another part of the country, and had nothing to do with the assessment. The surveyors are elected for a year, and may either be paid or not. A number of parishes may unite and appoint a district surveyor; and in populous parishes, or those having more than 5,000 inhabitants, a board may be appointed for the superintendence and repair of the highways. Every highway leading to any market town must be 20 feet wide at least; and every public horseway 8 feet at least. The justices may, at the expense of the parish or district, increase the width of any highway they reckon too narrow, to the breadth of 30 feet, but not more. Directions are also given for the setting up of sign-posts, milestones, &c.

This system has some good and some defective points. It is reasonable to suppose, inasmuch as the surveyor is appointed by the vestry, or principal inhabitants in a parish, by whom also the rate for the construction and repair of the roads must be principally paid, that they will be anxious to select the best individual, to proscribe every useless expense, without at the same time allowing the roads to get into a bad state. On the other hand, however, the business of roadmaking requires considerable scientific skill and practical experience; and the roads of one parish ought to be so combined with those of others as to form part of a consentaneous system. But the parochial surveyors are mostly very deficient in the knowledge of their business, of the principles of which they, in general, know nothing; and, from the want of any combined system, the roads in one parish are frequently very good, while those uniting with them, in the adjoining parishes, may be very bad. It is easier, however, to point out defects than to suggest any efficient remedy. Perhaps the best thing that could be done would be, to provide for the uniting of parishes into districts of considerable extent; and to restrict the choice of surveyors to persons who had been found qualified, upon examination by competent authority, to undertake the duty.

The system established by the act of Philip and Mary was improved and consolidated by acts passed in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I., and for a time answered pretty well. But the great increase

of wealth and population that took place during the reigns of James I. and of Charles I. and II. having led to a great increase of travelling and the employment of many pack-horses, wheel-carriages, &c., the old system was found to be quite inadequate for the keeping up and repair of the great roads, particularly in the vicinity of London. In consequence a new plan for raising a revenue for the construction and repair of the roads, by imposing tolls, payable at toll-gates (called turnpikes), was introduced by the act of 26 Charles 2. c. 1., which imposed tolls on all travellers by the Great Northern Road passing through Hertfordshire, Cambridgeshire, and Huntingdonshire. This system, however, was for a lengthened period exceedingly unpopular; and it was not till after the peace of Paris, in 1763, that turnpike roads began to be extended to all parts of the kingdom; and that the means of internal communication began, in consequence, to be signally improved. The turnpike roads of England and Wales extend, at present, to the distance of above 23,000 miles!

The usual method in constructing a turnpike road is to place it, if it be only for a short distance, under the management of a set of trustees; but if its length be considerable, it is usually placed under the management of various sets of trustees, each set being entrusted with the care of a certain portion. The trustees are appointed by act of parliament; and in general cousist, not merely of the proprietors of the estates through and contiguous to which the road passes, but also of the principal farmers and most opulent tradesmen in the vicinity. All details, with respect to the construction and repair of turnpike roads, are committed to the care of surveyors, appointed by and acting under the orders of the trustees.

The trustees may borrow money on security of the tolls and other revenues under their control. By this means they are enabled to complete, without delay, an undertaking that it might otherwise be impossible to accomplish for many years. This expedient is, in consequence, often resorted to. Most trusts, are, indeed, largely indebted. Exclusive of a large amount of floating debt, the debt secured by mortgage of tolls, &c. on the turnpike roads of England amounted, in 1829, to 5,578,8157. !

This system has some very obvious defects. The trustees are too numerous, and seldom act on any well-considered systematic principle: they too often appoint incompetent surveyors; their accounts are not subjected to any examination, nor do they act under any sufficient responsibility; and, owing to the number of trusts on the same road, it is frequently, in different parts, in a very different state of repair. Sir Henry Parnell has suggested means for obviating these defects. Of these, the principal seem to be the obliging of the trustees to select by ballot a small committee from among themselves, to whom the management of the revenue and all that belongs to the trust, including the appointment and dismissal of surveyors, should be committed. Sir Henry farther suggests that all sets of trustees should be obliged to forward statements of their accounts and proceedings to the Commissioners of Land Revenue, who should be authorised to appoint engineers to examine into the state of the roads, and in some degree to control the management of the different trusts. The carrying of