came from the sale of their vessels and also from their use as carriers. Burke justifies this trade on the ground that the profits were ultimately spent for English manufactures, which otherwise could not have been bought.

That we may be enabled to form some judgment of the wealth of this city, [Boston] we must observe that from Christmas 1747, to Christmas 1748, five hundred vessels cleared out from this port only, for a foreign trade; and four hundred and thirty were entered inwards; to say nothing of coasting and fishing vessels, both of which are extremely numerous, and said to be equal in number to the others. Indeed the trade of New-England is great, as it supplies a large quantity of goods from within itself; but it is yet greater, as the people of this country are in a manner the carriers for all the colonies of North America and the West-Indies, and even for some parts of Europe. They may be considered in this respect as the Dutch of America.

The commodities which the country yields are principally masts and yards, for which they contract argely with the royal navy; pitch, tar, and turpentine; staves, lumber, boards; all sorts of provisions, beef, pork, butter and cheese in large quantities; horses and live cattle; Indian corn and pease; cyder, apples, hemp and flax. Their peltry trade is not very considerable. They have a very noble cod fishery upon their coast, which employs a vast number of their people: they are enabled by this to export annually above thirty-two thousand quintals of choice cod fish, to Spain, Italy, and the Mediterranean, and about nineteen thousand quintals of the refuse sort to the West-Indies, as food for the negroes. The quantity of spirits, which they distil in Boston from the molasses they bring in from all parts of the WestIndies, is as surprising as the cheap rate at which they vend it, which is under two shillings a gallon. With this they supply almost all the consumption of our Colonies in North America, the Indian trade. there, the vast demands of their own and the Newfoundland fishery, and in great measure those of the African trade; but they are more famous for the quantity and cheapness, than for the excellency of their rum. . . .

The business of ship-building is one of the most considerable which Boston or the other sea-port towns in New-England carry on. Ships are sometimes built here upon commission; but frequently, the merchants of New England have them constructed upon their own account; and loading them with the produce of the colony, naval stores, fish, and fish-oil principally, they send them out upon a trading voyage to Spain, Portugal, or the Mediterranean; where, having disposed of their cargo, they make what advantage they

can by freight, until such time as they can sell the vessel herself to advantage, which they seldom fail to do in a reasonable time. They receive the value of the vessel, as well as of the freight of the goods, which from time to time they carried, and of the cargo with which they sailed originally, in bills of exchange upon London; for as the people of New England have no commodity to return for the value of above a hundred thousand pounds, which they take in various sorts of goods from England, but some naval stores, and those in no great quantities, they are obliged to keep the balance somewhat even by this circuitous commerce, which, though not carried on with Great Britain nor with British vessels, yet centers in its profits, where all the money which the colonies can make in any manner must center at last.

I know that complaints have been made of this trade, principally because the people of New-England, not satisfied with carrying out their own produce, become carriers for the other colonies, particularly for Virginia and Maryland, from whom they take tobacco, which in contempt of the act of navigation, they carry directly to the foreign market. Where not having the duty and accumulated charges to which the British merchant is liable to pay, they in a manner wholly out him of the trade. Again, our sugar colonies complain as loudly, that the vast trade which New England drives in lumber, live stock, and provisions, with the French and Dutch sugar islands, particularly with the former, enables these islands, together with the internal advantages they possess, greatly to undersell the English plantations. That, the returns which the people of New England make from these islands being in sugar, or the productions of sugar, syrups, and molasses, the rum which is thence distilled prevents the sale of our West-India rum. That this trade proves doubly disadvantageous to our sugar islands; first, as it enables the French to sell their sugars cheaper than they could otherwise afford to do; and then as it finds them a market for their molasses, and other refuse of sugars, for which otherwise they could find no market at all; because rum interferes with brandy, a considerable manufacture of Old France.

C. Exports of New England, 17631

The extent to which the fisheries contributed to the wealth of New England, and its importance in the foreign trade of that section are both shown by this extract.

I shall conclude this account, with a table of the exports of this province since the peace [of 1763].

1 American Husbandry. By an American (London, 1775), I, 59–61.

Upon this table I must observe, that the fishery amounts to 250,900 l. of it; or rather more than half the total, which shews what a great proportion of the people of this colony are employed in it. The other half is the produce of their lands, for so both ships and pot-ash must be esteemed; Cattle and beef, pork, &c. came to 65,500 1. all the rest is timber or what is made of timber; this is a proportion that gives us at once a tolerable idea of the colony. We are not from hence to suppose, that the great body of the landed interests in this country has, like Canada, no other resource to purchase foreign commodities with, than this small export. The case is very different, New England enjoys a vast fishery, and a great trade, which brings in no slight portion of wealth. The most considerable commercial town in all America is in this province; and another circumstance is the increase of population. These causes operate so as to keep up a considerable circulation within the colony. Boston and the shipping are a market which enriches the country interest far more than the above mentioned export, which, for so numerous a people, is very inconsiderable. By means of this internal circulation, the farmers and country gentlemen are enabled very amply to purchase whatever they want from abroad.

III. MIDDLE COLONIES

A. Foreign Trade of New York, 17481

The commerce of the middle colonies steadily increased, and in time both New York and Philadelphia passed Boston as important seaports. The middle colonies carried on a trade as extensive as that of New England, but made up to a greater extent of agricultural products, such as provisions of every sort. Peter Kalm, with his characteristic thoroughness, gives a clear picture of the foreign trade of New York in the middle of the 18th century.

1 Travels into North America. By Peter Kalm (London, 1771). In Pinkerton, Voyages and Travels (London, 1812), XIII, 458-9.

New York probably carries on a more extensive commerce than any town in the English North American provinces; at least it may be said to equal them; Boston and Philadelphia however come very near up to it. The trade of New York extends to many places; and it is said they send more ships from thence to London than they do from Philadelphia. They export to that capital all the various sorts of skins which they buy of the Indians, sugar, logwood, and other dying woods, rum, mahogany, and many other goods which are the produce of the West Indies; together with all the specie which they get in the course of trade. Every year they build several ships here, which are sent to London, and there sold; and of late years they have shipped a quantity of iron to England. In return for these, they import from London stuffs, and every other article of English growth or manufacture, together with all sorts of foreign goods. England, and especially London, profits immensely by its trade with the American colonies; for not only New York, but likewise all the other English towns on the continent, import so many articles from England, that all their specie, together with the goods which they get in other countries, must altogether go to Old England, in order to pay the amount, to which they are however insufficient. From hence it appears how much a well-regulated colony contributes to the increase and welfare of its mother country

New York sends many ships to the West Indies, with flour, corn, biscuit, timber, tuns, boards, flesh, fish, butter, and other provisions; together with some of the few fruits that grow here. Many ships go to Boston in New England, with corn and flour; and take in exchange, flesh, butter, timber, different sorts of fish, and other articles, which they carry further to the West Indies. They now and then take rum from thence, which is distilled there in great quantities, and sell it here with a considerable advantage. Sometimes they send yachts with goods from New York to Philadelphia, and at other times yachts are sent from Philadelphia to New York, which is only done, as appears from the gazettes, because certain articles are cheaper at one place than at the other. They send ships to Ireland every year, laden with all kinds of West India goods, but especially with linseed, which is reaped in this province. I have been assured that in some years no less than ten ships have been sent to Ireland, laden with nothing but linseed, because it is said the flax in Ireland does not afford good seed; but probably the true reason is this; the people of Ireland, in order to have the better flax, make use of the plant before the seed is ripe, and therefore are obliged to

send for foreign seed; and hence it becomes one of the chief articles in trade.

At this time a bushel of linseed is sold for eight shillings of New York currency, or exactly a piece of eight.

The goods which are shipped to the West Indies are sometimes paid for with ready money, and sometimes with West India goods, which are either first brought to New York, or immediately sent to England or Holland. If a ship does not chuse to take in West India goods in its return to New York, or if nobody will freight it, it often goes to Newcastle in England, to take in coals for ballast, which when brought home sell for a pretty good price. In many parts of the town coals are made use of, both for kitchen fires, and in rooms, because they are reckoned cheaper than wood, which at present costs thirty shillings of New York currency per fathom; of which measure I have before made mention. New York has likewise some intercourse with South Carolina; to which it sends corn, flour, sugar, rum, and other goods, and takes rice in return, which is almost the only commodity exported from South Carolina.

The goods with which the province of New York trades are not very numerous. They chiefly export the skins of animals which are bought of the Indians about Oswego; great quantities of boards, coming for the most part from Albany; timber and ready-made lumber, from that part of the country which lies about the river Hudson; and lastly, wheat, flour, barley, oats, and other kinds of corn, which are brought from New Jersey and the cultivated parts of this province. I have seen yachts from New Brunswick, laden with wheat which lay loose on board, and with flour packed up in tuns; and also with great quantities of linseed. New York likewise exports some flesh and other provisions out of its own province, but they are very few; nor is the quantity of pease, which the people about Albany bring, much greater. Iron however may be had more plentifully, as it is found in several parts of this province, and is of a considerable goodness; but all the other products of this country are of little account.

Most of the wine, which is drank here and in the other colonies, is brought from the isle of Madeira, and is very strong and fiery.

No manufactures of note have as yet been established here; at present they get all manufactured goods, such as woollen and linen cloth, &c. from England, and especially from London.

The river Hudson is very convenient for the commerce of this city; as it is navigable for near an hundred and fifty English miles up the country, and falls into the bay not far from the town, on its