overrun the territory of Gaul, made prisoners of two of their leaders, followed them over the Rhine, surprised and defeated them. He then directed his arms against Maxentius, who had joined Maximian against him. In the campaign in Italy he saw, it is said, a flaming cross in the heavens, beneath the sun, bearing the inscription, "In hoc signo vinces (Under this sign thou shalt conquer). He accordingly caused a standard to be made in this form, which was called the labarum. Some days after this he vanquished the army of Maxentius, under the walls of Rome, and drove it into the Tiber. He then entered the city in triumph, set at liberty all whom Maxentius had unjustly imprisoned, and pardoned all who had taken up arms against him. He was declared by the senate, chief, Augustus, and pontifex maximus. In the year 313, together with Licinius, he published the memorable edict of toleration in favor of the Christians. By this every one was allowed to embrace the religion most agreeable to his own mode of thinking, and all the property was restored to the Christians that had been taken from them during the persecutions. They were also made eligible to public offices. This edict marks the period of the triumph of the cross and the downfall of paganism.

Constantine had married his daughter to Licinius; but the latter, jealous of his fame, conceived a mortal hatred against him, which he displayed by persecuting the Christians. Both emperors took up arms and met in Pannonia 314 A.D. Licinius was defeated, but the conqueror granted him peace. He, however, renewed hostilities, was vanquished again, taken prisoner, and put to death at Constantine's command. Thus the latter became, in 325, the sole head of the Eastern and Western empires. His first and chief cares were the establishment of peace and order, and the propagation of his religion. Many beneficial decrees were proclaimed by him. Among these were those which abolished all the establishments of debauchery, ordered the children of the poor to be supported at his expense, gave permission to complain of his officers, and promised that the emperor would not only hear complaints, but compensate the complainants for injuries received, when they were proved to exist. He diminished the land-taxes, and caused a new valuation of estates to be taken. The state treasury had always been enriched by the property of criminals; but Constantine spared the property of their wives, and ameliorated the condition of their children.

Death in prison, he said, was a cruel punishment for the innocent, and an insufficient penalty for the guilty; he therefore ordered all trials of prisoners to take place at once. He forbade the use of unwholesome dungeons and oppressive chains. He gave leave to sick persons, widows, and orphans, to appeal from the local magistrates, and refused this privilege to their adversaries. It had been customary for the heirs of a person deceased to divide his slaves among them; Constantine forbade the separation in these cases of husbands from their wives, and of parents from their children. To the Christians he gave permission not only to erect churches, but to be remunerated for the cost of them from his domains. Amidst all the cares of government and the occupations of war he found leisure to assemble the Council of Arles, to put an end to the schism of the Donatists. The

ecumenical council held at Nice, in Bithynia 325 A.D. was attended by him in person.

On 26 Nov. 329 he laid the foundations of a new capital of the empire, at Byzantium, upon the Bosporus, in Thrace. The city of Byzantium had been almost entirely destroyed by Severus; it was rebuilt by Constantine, enlarged and adorned with open squares, fountains, a circus, and palaces, and called by his own name. Constantine divided the empire into four parts, governed by four prætorian prefects. Toward the close of his life he favored the Arians, to which he was induced by Eusebius of Nicomedia; and he even banished many Roman Catholic bishops. In the year 337 he fell ill in the neighborhood of Nicomedia, was baptized, and died after a reign of 31 years.

Constantine committed a great political error in dividing his empire among his three sons, Constantine, Constantius, and Constans. His zeal for Christianity appears to have been excited not less by the knowledge that the religion which was embraced by a majority of the inhabitants of the Roman empire must prevail, and that, of course, the strength of the government must be increased by protecting it, than by a wish to apply its consoling powers to the relief of a heavy conscience. He has been accused of inordinate ambition, excessive liberality, and an Oriental fondness for parade. But he was brave at the head of his army, mild and indulgent in his intercourse with his subjects, the favorite of his people, the terror of his foes. He was fond of the sciences as well as of arms, and gave them his protection. He read much, and wrote nearly all his own letters. In Eusebius we find many proofs of his theological learning. Some of the martyrologists have counted him among the saints, and fix 20 May as his festival. The Greeks and Russians observe it upon the 21st of the same month. Among all the writers who have attempted to describe the character, influence, and policy of Constantine, Gibbon, from the extent of his researches and the profoundness of his views, appears to deserve the first place, though his impartiality is more than doubtful. See Eusebius, Vita Constantini'; Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'; Fletcher, 'Life of Constantine the Great' (1852).

stantinus, Roman emperor: b. Arles, Gaul, 7 Constantine II., Flavius Claudius ConAug. 312; d. near Aquilea, Italy, 340.

He was the eldest son of Constantine I., and received father, Gaul, Spain, and Britain. as his share of the empire on the death of his Being desirous, however, of possessing himself of the territory of his brother Constans, he invaded the latter's dominions, but was defeated and killed.

Constantine IV., Flavius Constantinus, Emperor of the East; surnamed POGONATUS, or the BEARDED; d. 685. He was son of Constans II., whom he succeeded in 668. His two brothers, Tiberius and Heraclius, shared the title of Augustus, but had little or no share in the government, and toward the close of his reign, Constantine IV., under the influence of suspicion, had them mutilated and put to death. Constantinople was unsuccessfully attacked by the Mussulmen in 672 and the six following years; and it was during these wars that the famous "Greek fire" was invented. Constantine con

voked and took part in the sixth general council held at Constantinople, at which the doctrine of the Monothelites was condemned.

Constantine V., emperor of the East: b. Constantinople 719; d. near Selymbria, Thrace, 14 Sept. 775. He was surnamed COPRONYMUS and succeeded his father, Leo the Isaurian, in 743. He sided with the Iconoclasts, who hurled down the images of the saints, and persecuted the followers of the Roman Catholic Church. He died in an expedition against the Bulgarians.

Constantine VI., Flavius Constantinus, Emperor of the East: b. 771; d. Constantinople about 797. He was son of Leo IV., whom he succeeded in 780. Being only 10 years old when his father died, his mother Irene was his guardian and regent of the empire. On arriving at a mature age he wished to assume the government himself; but Irene, made cruel by ambition, had him imprisoned. He escaped in 790, exiled his mother, recalled her, and finally, ruined by his licentious living, and despised by his subjects, a conspiracy was formed against him, Irene taking the lead in it; and being imprisoned, his eyes were put out by her order.

Constantine VIII., emperor of the East: b. 905; d. 15 Nov. 959. He was surnamed PORPHYROGENITUS, and succeeded Leo the Wise in 905. He was destitute of energy, and devoted himself chiefly to study. He admitted colleagues to the throne so that at least five emperors were reigning together. Constantine VIII. left a treatise on state affairs, a geography of the empire, and the Life of the Emperor Basilius, the Macedonian.'

Constantine X., emperor of the East: d. 1028. He was the son of Romanus II., succeeded John Zemisces, and was proclaimed emperor of the East, with his brother, Basil II., who held the principal authority till 1025, when he died. Constantine X. was, after that, sole

emperor.

Constantine XIII., Palæologus, emperor of the East: b. 1394; d. 29 May 1453. He was the last of the Greek emperors, and succeeded to the throne in 1448. He was killed in bravely defending Constantinople against Mahomet II., who in 1453 besieged the city with 300,000 men. The heroic valor displayed by Constantine XIII. in this unequal contest demands our admiration; but valor was of no avail, the city was taken by storm, and thus ended the Greek empire.

Constantine, Pau'lovitch, Russian grand duke: b. St. Petersburg 8 May 1779; d. Vitebsk 27 June 1831. He was the second son of the Emperor Paul of Russia. In the wars against France he distinguished himself by his personal bravery, though not by his capacity for command. He was the elder brother of the Emperor Nicholas, to whom he ceded the crown on the death of Emperor Alexander I., their brother. Constantine was afterward made viceroy of Poland, and ruled that unfortunate country with great severity.

Constantine, Nikolaevitch, Russian grand duke: b. St. Petersburg 21 Sept. 1827; d. there 24 Jan. 1892. He was the second son of the Emperor Nicholas of Russia, and brother of the Emperor Alexander II., grand duke and great admiral of Russia. In the war of 1854-6 he had the defenses of the Baltic intrusted to his care, in conjunction with Admiral Lütke: but the

policy of the emperor hardly allowed the prince any display of courage or ability. He was made viceroy of Poland in 1862, but resigned the next year. He was president of the council of state 1865-81, but being suspected of sympathizing with the revolutionary party was dismissed from office.

Constantine, Flavius Julius, Roman soldier. He was raised by the army in Great Britain to the imperial dignity in 409, on which he crossed over to Gaul and conquered that country and Spain. He fixed his court at Arles, where he was besieged by Constantius, the general of the Emperor Honorius, to whom he surrendered on the promise that his life should be spared; but it was basely violated, and both Constantine and his son were put to death, 411 A.D.

in the French territory of Algeria, capital of the Constantine, kôn-stän-tēn', Africa, a town province of Constantine, on a rocky peninsula, 1,968 feet above the sea, and accessible only the Arabs chiefly with stones which the Romans on one side. It is surrounded by walls, built by had hewn and carved, and is entered by four handsome gates. The streets, though well paved, are narrow and dirty, and the houses are very indifferent. The only edifice deserving of particular notice is the palace of the bey, now the residence of the French governor. It is more remarkable for its internal decorations than for its external structure. Both within the town and in the vicinity Roman remains abound. It is the Episcopal see of a Catholic bishop. The French have here a college and the Mohammedans, a seminary. The manufactures consist chiefly of woolen and linen goods and various articles in leather; the trade is in corn, linen, and wax. It is connected by railroad with Philippville, its port of entry, 47 miles distant, and with the largest towns in the territory. Constantine was built by the emperor whose name it bears, kings, which had fallen into decay. In 1837, after on the site of Cirta, the capital of the Numidian a long siege, the French took it by assault. Pop. about 50,000.

Constantine, Arch of, one of the noted triumphal arches of the world, erected by order of the Roman senate to commemorate the victory gained by Constantine over Maxentius. It is situated between the Cælian and Palatine Hills, and was built in 315. This monument of victory is well preserved, but while it tells of the power of the Emperor Constantine, it also bears witness to the incompetency of the Roman sculptors of the period in which it was built. The whole design was copied from the Arch of Trajan, even the reliefs were removed to the Arch of Constantine, and they illustrate the battles and victories of Trajan and not of Constantine. The parts copied or taken from Trajan are of superior design and workmanship, but the sculpture of the artists of the day, representing the deeds and victories of Constantine are inferior in design and crude in workmanship. Four stately columns are on each face, one high and two lower entrances. The inscriptions proclaim the great deeds of the

emperor.

Constantine Tolmen, a great oblong stone, 33 feet long, 18 wide, and 14 thick, poised on the points of two upright rocks in Cornwall,

England. This mass weighs 750 tons. It is one of the natural curiosities of Cornwall.

Constantino'ple, called by the Turks Stamboul, by the Greeks, Istampoli (both derived from the Greek eis ten polin, into the city), Turkey in Europe, capital of the Turkish empire, lat. 41° o 18" N.; lon. 28° 59′ 15′′ E., with the Sea of Marmora and the Bosporus on the south and east, and the Golden Horn, an inlet of the latter of about six miles in length, on the north. It is surrounded by water on all sides excepting the west, and has a sea front altogether of about eight miles in extent. The city is triangular in shape, its apex projecting into the Bosporus, and its base, a lofty double wall of four miles in length, stretching across the promontory, from the Sea of Marmora to the Golden Horn. Each of the sides may be about three and three fourths miles in length, and within these limits the whole of the city proper is included. On the opposite side of the Golden Horn, and also occupying the extremity of a promontory, sometimes called the Peninsula of Pera, are situated the extensive suburbs, Galata, Pera, and Tophana. Constantinople was formerly walled on all sides; but the walls along the Golden Horn and Sea of Marmora, the north and south sides of the city respectively, are in a ruinous state, and in many places have altogether disappeared. The inland or west wall, a magnificent specimen of mural architecture, containing six gates, though also dilapidated in parts, could be easily restored. The streets are extremely narrow, dark, dirty, and ill-paved, and so crooked that hardly any two of them run for any length parallel to each other. The houses are generally low and ill-built. The windows are strictly closed with lattice-work of cane, in the centre of which the wife of the Turk, excluded from public view, endeavors to see what is passing in the street. The city is supplied with water by public fountains, which are very numerous, and some of them extremely beautiful, having pure white marble façades, elaborate arabesque ornaments, and Chinese roofs; they generally stand in the centre of an open square. On the extreme northeastern point of the promontory on which the city stands, called Point Serai, is situated the Seraglio or palace of the sultan, having the Bosporus in front and the Golden Horn on the left, and commanding a magnificent view of the opposite shore, including the beautiful town of Scutari, and its cypress-covered hills. The Seraglio, with its gardens and groves, includes a large space, and is washed by the sea for two thirds of its extent. Having been enlarged and altered at various periods, according to the taste or caprice of the princes and sultanas, it now consists of a conglomeration of buildings, clustering together without order or design. Its apartments, however, are spacious and richly furnished. At the principal entrance is a large and lofty gate, called Babi Humayon, "the high door" or "sublime porte," from which has been derived the well-known diplomatic phrase, all political business being transacted, as supposed, under this portal. Within the precincts of the palace is the celebrated divan and the harem, with the "Garden of Delight," in which are numerous gorgeous' parterres and pavilions. The Adrianople and Constantinople railway here runs along the coast and has a terminus.

There are a great number of mosques in Constantinople, all of them more or less distinguished by grandeur and beauty; but the most there are about 15, among the finest in the world. remarkable are the royal mosques, of which Of these the largest and most splendid is that of Suleimania, situated on the northeast side of the city, and standing in the midst of a large square, surrounded inside by an arcade upon pillars of granite and marble. Next to it in extent, but of much older date, is the famous mosque of St. Sophia, near the east extremity of the city, the pattern of almost every mosque in the land; its walls and domes, of which last it has 20 of equal dimensions, springing from the same level, and sustained by 12 huge columns, are encrusted with mosaics, forming various figures and devices. The court or open square in which it stands is paved with marble, and shaded by fine plane-trees. This is the most ancient existing Christian church, having been only converted into a mosque in 1453. It has latterly been thoroughly restored by an English architect, by order of the sultan, and the layer of plaster removed by which the superb mosaics and frescoes that decorate its walls were covered. The mosque of Yeni Djami, known also as that of the Sultana Valide, was built by the mother of Mohammed IV., and is esteemed one of the most magnificent in the capital. It stands almost on the edge of the port, and this point, being the ferry between Galata and Stamboul, is constantly thronged with boats. Here almost every Frank first lands in the "City of the Faithful." The mosque is constructed of white marble, and has two peculiarly elegant minarets, encircled by no less than three galleries of richly perforated workmanship. The principal dome rests upon four lesser ones, which appear to lift it to the clouds. Another celebrated mosque is that of Sultan_Ahmed, a little southeast from the former. the elevated position this building occupies it is the most conspicuous object in the city when viewed from the Sea of Marmora. The minarets are of great beauty, and ascend to an immense height. All the other mosques are much less in size than those described, but very much resemble them in plan and other features. All of them are enriched by splendid columns of marble, Egyptian granite, or serpentine, and have massive and highly ornamented gateways and porches, and handsome courts and cisterns for ablution.

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The bazaars of Constantinople are numerous but in no way very remarkable. Some of them are covered, others open. The covered bazaars have a somewhat mean appearance, resembling a row of booths at a fair, but the arrangement and manner of exposing the gay and glittering wares is sufficiently attractive. The principal or Great Bazaar consists of long avenues covered over with lofty arches of brick, lighted by apertures in the roof, and branching off in different directions. The ceilings of the vaults, and various parts of the walls, are ornamented with painted flowers and devices. On each side of the passage are counters and stalls, with a wide passage between them, and on each counter sits the merchant, generally smoking his pipe or chibouk, with his crossed legs drawn under him. The bazaars, both the open and covered, are severally allotted to particular trades and merchandise; they are generally so crowded,