discussed in the opinion of the majority of the court, delivered by Judge Bryan, was that the liability imposed by section 21 of the statute of New York upon officers of a corporation, making a false certificate of its condition, was for all its debts, without inquiring whether a creditor had been deceived and induced by deception to lend his money or to give credit, or whether he had incurred loss to any extent by the inability of the corporation to pay, and without limiting the recovery to the amount of loss sustained, and was intended as a punishment for doing any of the forbidden acts, and was, therefore, in view of the decisions in that state and in Maryland, a penalty which could not be enforced in the state of Maryland; and that the judgment obtained in New York for this penalty, while it "merged the original cause of action so that a suit cannot be again maintained upon it," and "is also conclusive evidence of its existence in the form and under the circumstances stated in the pleadings," yet did not change the nature of the transaction, but, within the decision of this court in Wisconsin v. Insurance Co., 127 U. S. 265, 8 Sup. Ct. Rep. 1370, was in its "essential nature and real foundation" the same as the original cause of action, and therefore a suit could not be maintained upon such a judgment beyond the limits of the state in which it was rendered. Pages 193-198, 70 Md., and pages 653, 654, 16 Atl. Rep.

The court then took up the clause of the bill, above quoted, in which it was sought to charge Attrill as originally liable under the statute of New York, both as a stockholder and as a director, and, observing that "this liability is asserted to exist independently of the judgment," summarily disposed of it, upon the grounds that it could not attach to him as a stockholder, because he had not been sued, as required by the New York statute, within two years after the plaintiff's debt became due, nor as a director, because "the judgment against Attrill for having made the false report certainly merges all right of action against him on this account," but that, if he was liable at the times and on the grounds "mentioned in this clause of the bill," this liability was barred by the statute of limitations of Maryland. Pages 198, 199, 70 Md., and page 654, 16 Atl. Rep.

Having thus decided against the plaintiff's claim under his judgment, upon the single ground that it was for a penalty under

the statute of New York, and therefore could not be enforced in Maryland, and against any original liability under the statute, for various reasons, the opinion concluded; "Upon the whole it appears to us that the complainant has no cause of action which he can maintain in this state." Page 199, 70 Md. Page 199, 70 Md. and page 654 16 Atl. Rep.

Judge Stone, with whom Judge McSherry concurred, dissented from the opinion of the majority of the court, upon the ground that it did not give due effect to the act of congress passed in pursuance of the constitution of the United States, and providing that the records of judgments rendered by a court of any state shall have such faith and credit given to them in every court within the United States as they have by law or usage in the courts of the state whence they are taken. Act May 26, 1790, c. 11, (1 St. p. 122; Rev. St. § 905.) He began his opinion by saying: "I look upon the principal point as a federal question, and am governed in my views more by my understanding of the decis ions of the supreme court of the United States than by the decisons of the state courts." And he concluded thus: "I think the supreme court, in 127 U. S. 265, 8 Sup. Ct. Rep. 1370, meant to confine the operation of the rule that no country will executethe penal law of another to such laws as are properly classified as criminal. It is not very easy to give any brief definition of a criminal law. It may perhaps be enough to say that, in general, all breaches of duty that confer no rights upon an individual or person, and which the state alone can take cognizance of, are in their nature criminal, and that all such come within the rule. But laws which while imposing a duty, at the same time confer a right upon the citizens to claim damages for its non-performance, are not criminal. If all the laws of the latter description are held penal, in the sense of criminal, that clause in the constitution which relates to records and judgments is of comparatively little value. There is a large and constantly increasing number of cases that may in one sense be termed penal, but can in no sense be classed as criminal. Examples of these may be found in suits for damages for negligence in causing death, for double damages for the injury to stock where railroads have neglected the state laws for fencing in their tracks, and the liability of officers of corporations for the debts of

the company by reason of their neglect of a plain duty imposed by statute. I cannot think that judgments on such claims are not within the protection given by the constitution of the United States. I, therefore, think the order in this case should be affirmed." Pages 200-205, 70 Md., and pages 654-656, 16 Atl. Rep.

A writ of error was sued out by the plaintiff, and allowed by the chief justice of the court of appeals of Maryland, upon the ground "that the said court of appeals is the highest court of law or equity in the state of Maryland in which a decision in the said suit could be had; that in said suit a right and privilege are claimed under the constitution and statutes of the United States, and the decision is against the right and privilege set up and claimed by your petitioner under said constitution and statutes; and that in said suit there is drawn in question the validity of a statute of, and an authority exercised under, the United States, and the decision is against the validity of such statute and of such authority."

It thus appears that the judgment recovered in New York was made the foremost ground of the bill, was fully discussed and distinctly passed upon by the majority of the court of appeals of Maryland, and was the only subject of the dissenting opinion; and that the court, without considering whether the validity of the transfers impeached as fraudulent was to be governed by the law of New York or by the law of Maryland, and without a suggestion that those transfers alleged to have been made by Attrill with intent to delay, hinder, and defraud all his creditors were not voidable by subsequent as well as by existing creditors, or that they could not be avoided by the plaintiff, claiming under the judgment recovered by him against Attrill after those transfers were made, declined to maintain his right to do so by virtue of that judgment, simply because the judgment had, as the court held, been recovered in another state, in an action for a penalty.

The question whether due faith and credit were thereby denied to the judgment rendered in another state is a federal question, of which this court has jurisdiction on this writ of error. Green v. Van Buskirk, 5 Wall, 307, 311; Crapo v. Kelly, 16 Wall, 610, 619; Dupasseur v. Rochereau, 21 Wall, 130, 134; Crescent City

Livestock Co. v. Butchers' Union Slaughter-House Co., 120 U. S. 141, 146, 147, 7 Sup. Ct. Rep. 472; Cole v. Cunningham, 133 U. S. 107, 10 Sup. Ct. Rep. 269; Carpenter v. Strange, 141 U. S. 87, 103, 11 Sup. Ct. Rep. 960. In order to determine this question, it will be necessary, in the first place, to consider the true scope and meaning of the fundamental maxim of international law stated by Chief Justice Marshall in the fewest possible words: "The courts of no country execute the penal laws of another." The Antelope, 10 Wheat. 66, 123. In interpreting this maxim, there is danger of being misled by the different shades of meaning allowed to the word "penal" in our language.

In the municipal law of England and America, the words "penal" and "penalty" have been used in various senses. Strictly and primarily, they denote punishment, whether corporal or pecuniary, imposed and enforced by the state for a crime or of fense against its laws. U. S. v. Reisinger, 128 U. S. 398, 402; 9 Sup. Ct. Rep. 99; U. S. v. Chouteau, 102 U. S. 603, 611. But they are also commonly used as including any extraordinary liability to which the law subjects a wrongdoer in favor of the person wronged, not limited to the damages suffered. They are so elastic in meaning as even to be familiarly applied to cases of private contracts, wholly independent of statutes, as when we speak of the "penal sum" or "penalty" of a bond. In the words of Chief Justice Marshall: "In general, a sum of money in gross to be paid for the non-performance of an agreement, is considered as a penalty, the legal operation of which is to cover the damages which the party in whose favor the stipulation is made may have. sustained from the breach of contract by the opposite party.' Tayloe v. Sandiford, 7 Wheat, 13, 17.

Penal laws, strictly and properly, are those imposing punishment for an offense committed against the state, and which, by the English and American constitutions, the executive of the state has the power to pardon. Statutes giving a private action against the wrongdoer are sometimes spoken of as penal in their nature, but in such cases it has been pointed out that neither the liability imposed nor the remedy given is strictly penal.

The action of an owner of property against the hundred to recover damages caused by a mob was said by Justices Willes and Bul

ler to be "penal against the hundred, but certainly remedial as to the sufferer." Hyde v. Cogan, 2 Doug. 699, 705, 706. A statute giving the right to recover back money lost at gaming, and, if the loser does not sue within a certain time, authorizing a quitam action to be brought by any other person for threefold the amount, has been held to be remedial as to the loser, though penal as regards the suit by a common informer. Bones v. Booth, 2 W. Bl. 1226; Brandon v. Pate, 2 H. Bl. 308; Grace v. McElroy, 1 Allen, 563; Read v. Stewart, 129 Mass. 407, 410; Cole v. Groves, 134 Mass. 471. As said by Mr. Justice Ashhurst in the king's bench, and repeated by Mr. Justice Wilde in the supreme judicial court of Massachusetts, "it has been held in many instances that, where a statute gives accumulative damages to the party grieved, it is not a penal action." Woodgate v. Knatchbull, 2 Term R. 148, 154; Read v. Chelmsford, 16 Pick. 128, 132. Thus a statute giving to a tenant, ousted without notice, double the yearly value of the premises against the landlord, has been held to be "not like a penal law, where a punishment is imposed for a crime,' but "rather as a remedial than a penal law," because "the act indeed does give a penalty, but it is to the party grieved." Lake v. Smith, 1 Bos. & P. (N. R.) 174, 179, 180, 181; Wilkinson v. Colley, 5 Burrows, 2694, 2698. So in an action given by statute to a traveler injured through a defect in a highway, for double damages against the town, it was held unnecessary to aver that the facts constituted an offense, or to conclude against the form of the statute, because, as Chief Justice Shaw said: "The action is purely remedial, and has none of the characteristics of a penal prosecution. All damages for neglect or breach of duty operate to a certain extent as punishment; but the distinction is that it is not prosecuted for the purpose of punishment, and to deter others from offending in like manner. Here the plaintiff sets out the liability of the town to repair, and an injury to himself from a failure to perform that duty. The law gives him enhanced damages; but still they are recoverable to his own use, and in form and substance the suit calls for indemnity." Reed v. Northfield, 13 Pick. 94, 100, 101.

The test whether a law is penal, in the strict and primary sense, is whether the wrong sought to be redressed is a wrong to the public or a wrong to the individual, according to the familiar