with endeavouring to convert Roumania into a half-way house on their road to Jerusalem, and insisted on these endeavours being put down at all hazards. It is to be presumed that the condition of the Roumanian Jews will remain a standing question of European politics for some years to

come.

The history of the Jews in Russia proper cannot well be separated from that of their brethren in Poland. In fact, almost all the Jews in Russia may be classed among the Polish Jews. But a few words are required to say all that need be said about them. It was about the end of the fifteenth century that measures were first adopted against them by the czars; they were entirely expelled the Russian dominions, which, in those days, were not one half what they are now. At the beginning of the eighteenth century they were re-admitted by Peter the Great, to be turned out again by the Empress Elizabeth, in 1734, and allowed to return once more by Catherine II., about 1770.

In 1844, a ukase of the Emperor of Russia was issued by the advice of the Senate, relieving Jewish agriculturalists who cultivate their land by persons of their religion, from conscription for

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twenty years, and from taxes for fifty; all others, employing from one hundred to two hundred Jews in agriculture, to become nobles; and above two hundred, to enjoy the rights and privileges of hereditary nobility.

The Government of the present Emperor, Alexander II., has been much more liberal to the Jews than any previous one. Quite recently they have received permission to form a congregation and build a synagogue in St. Petersburgh, where many rich and influential Jews reside. The University of St. Petersburgh has a medical Jewish Professor; and the celebrated Professor Levisohn, the translator of the Bible into modern Russ, was a convert from Judaism. We are informed that, even in the Baltic provinces, and especially at Riga, where great restrictions have existed hitherto, the laws against them have been, or are about to be, repealed.

CHAPTER XII.

The Jews in England.-Traces in the Saxon Period.-Persecutions under Kings Richard I., John and Henry III.—Expulsion under King Edward I.—Improvement in their Condition, worked by the Reformation.-Spinoza.-The French Revolution.—Moses Mendelsohn.-Present condition of the Jews in the various Countries of Europe.

BUT one more country remains now, in which I have to trace the condition of the Jews during the middle ages,-the country of my adoption, England.

I am jealous enough of the fair fame of this noble country to wish I could palliate her acts against the Jews, but, alas, truth compels me to say that even this land of freedom, in which legions of good men have shed their blood to secure the rights of the people, was not superior to most other countries in her policy towards the descendants of Abraham.

Although we cannot tell when the first Jews settled in England, we know, at all events, that as early as A.D. 140, some of them lived in this country, and were apparently on friendly

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terms with their Saxon neighbours; for in that year the Archbishop of York issued a decree forbidding Christians to go to Jewish feasts. After the conquest it appears that the number of Jews increased greatly in England. Of William Rufus we know that he treated them with great favour; he even promoted some of them to vacant bishops' sees, thereby giving great offence to the clergy. In his time we find Jews also established at Oxford, where many of them instructed Christian students in Hebrew. In the twelfth century, the same cruelties and extortions that were perpetrated on the Jews in other countries, were practised on them in England, mainly for the purpose of depriving them of their wealth. On the coronation-day of King Richard I., when they came to pay their homage, the population was so inflamed against them, that a collision ensued, and for a whole day and night the Jews in London were plundered and murdered. This sad example of London was followed at Stamford, Norwich, and in other places where Hebrews resided. The most horrid tragedy, however, was enacted at York, where, having taken refuge in the Castle, they defended their lives against the mob assailing them, and

at last, finding that they could hold out no longer, followed the noble example of the soldiers of Masada, mentioned before, by putting each other to death after setting fire to the castle. The father did not spare his children's life, nor the husband that of his wife, while the Rabbi, being left the last survivor, fell on his own sword.

In the reign of John Lackland, the Jews were at first favoured, but in due time, when they had accumulated wealth, and the King was in want of money, he found means to oppress and rob them. The Jew in Bristol who had a tooth extracted every day until he was willing to pay 10,000 marks of silver, and who held out full seven days, before he paid, was one of his many victims. Under Henry III., again, the Jews were first fairly treated, notwithstanding even the opposition of the Church, and a house was also opened for the reception of converts from Judaism, of whom there were a goodly number, who wanted protection against Jews as well as against Gentiles. It is to be noted that the site of that building, in which these converts were sheltered, is now occupied by the Rolls' Court. But soon Henry, too, began to exact enormous