persons to educate themselves to write with the unaffected extremity, the result being often a legible and clear production with more or less change of style.

FINGER AND FOOT IMPRESSIONS.

For the establishment of the identity of a criminal a careful examination should always be made of the papers handled, window-panes, and china and glass ornaments, or, in fact, any other object which may receive an impress from his more or less greasy fingers, at the place of commission of the crime. By oblique light there will sometimes be nodifficulty in finding upon the polished window-pane a faint though perfect imprint, which can afterward be strengthened and made the subject of a permanent record. For this purpose the method contrived by Forgeot (publications of the Laboratoire d'Anthropologie Criminelle, of Lyons), which consists in the application of common ink or some aqueous pigment which will adhere to the parts that are not greasy, may be tried; or the glass may be subjected to the vapor of hydrofluoric acid. Forgeot has shown that even pieces of paper which have been touched by slightly greasy hands will bear the imprint of the fingers, and the most delicate markings may be brought out after treatment with ordinary ink, and these used as a negative with good results. In exceptional cases the finger-marks may be made to give lithographic impressions.

Galton (Finger Prints, London, 1892) refers to the comparison of these markings with those which are obtained by making the suspected person press his thumb and fingers upon transfer-paper, the impression being subsequently transferred to stone, thus correcting the impression, which should be reversed if direct contact were made.

The value of finger impressions as a proof of identity is certainly onethat has not been over-exaggerated. Galton says: "So far as the proportions of the patterns go, they are not absolutely fixed, even in the adult, inasmuch as they change with the shape of the finger. If the finger is plumped out or emaciated, or variously deformed by usage, gout, or age, the proportions of the pattern will vary also. Two prints of the same finger, one taken before and the other after an interval of many years, cannot be expected to be as closely alike as two prints similarly made from the same woodcut. They are far from satisfying the shrewd test of the stereoscope, which shows if there has been an alteration even of a letter in two otherwise duplicate pages of print. The measurements vary at different periods, even in the adult, just as much if not more than his height, span, and the length of his several limbs. On the other hand, the numerous bifurcations, origins, islands, and inclosures in the ridges that compose the pattern are proved to be almost beyond change. A comparison is made between the pattern on a finger and one on a piece of lace; the latter may be stretched or shrunk as a whole, but the threads of which it is made retain their respective peculiarities. The evidence on which these conclusions are founded is considerable, and almost wholly derived from the collections made by Sir W. Herschel, who most kindly placed them at my disposal. They refer to one or more fingers, and in a few instances to the whole hand, of fifteen persons. The intervals be

fore and after which the prints were taken amount in some cases to thirty years. Some of them reach from babyhood to boyhood, some

Fig. 39.-Schematic figure showing the different thumb-tip types of Galton and the disposition of the papillary lines. The capitals, C and T, respectively indicate the curved lines (C) and the transverse lines (T); the small letters, e and i, correspond to the external and internal sides of the last phalanx. 1, First type (primary type); 2, second type (Cei, Tei); 3, third type (Ce, Ti); 4, fourth type (Ci, Te); 5, fifth type (Ci, Ti); 6, sixth type (Cei, Ti); 7. seventh type (Ci, Tei); 8, eighth type (Ce, Te); 9, ninth type (Ce, Tei); 10, tenth type (Cei, Te). (Testut.)

from childhood to youth, some from youth to advanced middle age, one from middle life to incipient old age. These four stages nearly include the whole of the ordinary life of man. I have compared altogether some 700 points of reference in these couplets of impressions, and only found a single instance of discordance, in which a ridge that was cleft in a child became united in later years. Photographic enlargements are given in illustration, which include between them a total of 157 pairs of points of reference, all bearing distinctive numerals to facilitate comparison and to prove their unchangeableness. Reference is made to another illustrated publication of mine, which raises the total number of points compared to 389, all of which were successful, with the single exception above mentioned. The fact of an almost complete persistence in the peculiarities of the ridges from birth to death may now be considered as determined. They existed before birth, and they persist after death, until effaced by decomposition."

A definite and constant series of patterns is found. (See Fig. 39.) These consist of ridges and depressions, and the last phalanx of the thumb contains in its space between the parallel ridges "a compact little system of its own, variously curved and whorled, being a fictitious resemblance to an eddy between two currents." (See Fig. 40.)

Fig. 40.-Impression of the right thumb-schematic. (Testut.) 1, Curved lines; 2, transverse lines; 3, intermediate lines; C, the highest of the curved lines; T, the lowest of the curved lines; e i, external and internal sides of the thumb.

Galton gives examples to show how the outlining is performed, and some of the patterns which are characteristic. He says: "Outlines fall

for the most part into nine distinct genera, confined by the relative direction of the divergent ridges that inclose them." He divides his classification with reference to the existence of arches, loops, and whorls. "In the arches there is no pattern, strictly speaking, for there is no interspace; the need of it being avoided by a successive and regular broadening out of the ridges as they cross the bulb of the finger. In loops the interspace is filled with a system of ridges that bends back upon itself, in which no ridge turns through a complete circle. Whorls contain all cases in which at least one ridge turns through a complete circle, and they include certain double patterns which have a whorled appearance."

I append one of his plates, which has been reproduced by Testut, which may serve as a guide for examination.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF FOOTPRINTS.

Sometimes footprints are the only traces left by a murderer, and will alone lead to the identity of the assassin. Much attention has been paid, especially by Ogston, to the impressions that are often found in the soil near the place where the deed has been committed. Putting out of the question certain scars and other peculiarities that may be subsequently compared with the foot of the suspected person, and devoting more attention to the footmark itself, we may assume that, according to Mascar and

A

Fig. 41.

most others, the print in the ground is smaller than the foot which made it. This is in variance with the popular idea that the impression in the ground is equal if not larger than the foot that made it, and Caussé holds to this view that the impression is usually larger. It has been shown that the action of the individual can be somewhat determinedthat is to say, whether he was standing, walking, or running-from the depth and extent of the marks.

Fig. 41 represents the method adopted by Caussé (Annales d'Hygiene Publique et de Médecine Légale, 2d series, vol. i., 1854) for the purpose of identifying the footprints of incriminated persons. The line A B is drawn between the internal part of the curve of the heel and the prominent point at the metatarso-phalangeal articulation. This line is divided by others equidistant at right angles from the first, leaving a number of divi sions which serve as guides for measurement and for tracing the internal border of the footprints. It will be seen by Fig. 41 the variations that may take place under different circumstances, and this may be considered in every way to be a safe and certain guide, unless the bottom of the foot is so smeared with blood as to prevent the recognition of its contour.

It is often of the utmost importance that a mold should be taken of the footprints, and when one is found that is the most satisfactory, the method of Hougilon may be resorted to. This consists in heating the impressed ground to 220° F., or more, which may be done by holding over it a shallow pan containing burning charcoal, or more quickly and simply by the use of a painter's benzine lamp, and then dusting the heated impression with ground paraffine. When the soil is cool the paraffine may be removed for a mold of plaster of Paris, or electro-metallurgical reproduction.

RIGHT- AND LEFT-HANDEDNESS.

A consideration to be regarded is the question of right- or left-handedness; the movements of the suspected individual should therefore be closely watched. The degree and situation of a possible asymmetry should be determined, and his boot-heels inspected-in fact, it is always wise to closely examine the clothing of a prisoner with reference to its condition, fit, and newness. A trap into which the prisoner unwarily falls may be arranged by asking him suddenly to hold up his right or left hand, and he will usually not consider the result. A case is referred to in which Sir Astley Cooper was called as a witness where the prisoner was pressed to admit that he was left-handed, but denied the accusation. "When called upon, however, to plead to the indictment, he unconsciously held up his left hand."

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS AS TO EXAMINATIONS.

The conduct of the examination of a suspected person should be thorough and painstaking. The memory of past occurrences should be investigated and the consistency of answers noted. His body should be carefully gone over, and, if possible, an outline figure should be provided upon which the location of body-marks are noted, with measurements and explanatory text. Not only is every external part to be inspected, but evidences of mutilation or disease alteration should be looked for, and the presence of artificial pigments, powder grains, tattooing, the scars of venereal and other sores recognized. The teeth must be separately looked at, and their appearance, condition, and the fact recorded whether and how they are filled.

If possible, a photograph is to be secured, and it is best to have two, one of the full face and the other of the profile. The photographer should carefully avoid any sources of distortion; lighting the face uniformly, and avoiding the forward projection of the upper or lower half. If there be any bodily peculiarities, or extensive tattooing, a photographic representation should be made. As a rule, old photographs, carelessly taken, are not of much use, and are often unreliable for positive identification. I have seen three pictures of one New York criminal taken at different times, but all during a criminal career of adult life, which are utterly dissimilar. At the Prefecture in Paris, although photographs accompany the identification cards, very little value is placed upon their help except as an auxiliary aid.

In these days of progress, criminal registry is becoming so general that some notice should be made of the admirable work of Bertillon.

M. Alphonse Bertillon has invented an admirable system, which has been adopted by the French Government and has found its way to this country, being in vogue in Boston and Chicago, and may serve to fix the identity of criminals coming from these places, although it is not practiced as systematically as in France. In ten years he has made measurements of no less than 100,000 criminals, preserving the results and classifying them so that it is possible to accurately hit upon the required description of any suspected person, and I have myself seen habitual criminals or recedivists positively identified at the Prefecture after a few minutes' search.

It is Bertillon's method to tabulate the measurements, together with a description of certain physical appearances, and a front and profile photograph, which are recorded upon a card which is filed away with others within easy reach.

There are four chief measurements: (1) the head length; (2) the head breadth; (3) the middle-finger length; and (4) the foot length-the measurements of these parts being found to be more constant than others.

These four are still further subdivided into "small," "medium," and "large," so that there are in all eighty-one principal headings which may include the case of the particular prisoner. There are still further subdivisions of these primary headings, the same triplex classification being carried out. The height of the trunk is made the basis of one division, while the ear measurements are recorded so that its length and breadth are taken, the height, the span, and cubit forming others. The color of the eye is determined, and is classified under seven headings, and finally the records are grouped and subdivided, and upon each body-marks and special appearances are detailed.

Bertillon's classification of appearances presented by the ear includes the variations presented in Fig. 60. He also refers to the configuration of the nose and the characteristics of the forehead, and these are portrayed in Figs. 42-59. According to this investigator the ear undergoes very little change. Contorted and swollen ears often indicate the existence of previous insanity.

It can be seen that numerous classifications are possible, and it is comparatively easy to nearly approximate the exact description of any particular person.

The possibilities of this admirable system are unlimited, and doubtless when insurance companies subject their applicants to some general form