by the methods now generally employed, so uncertain that the conscientious chemist will seek for methods free from these sources of error before he gives positive testimony of the presence of this alkaloid.

I have spoken of indol and its derivatives as being present in the decomposing tissue, and it should be stated that the number of known indol derivatives is by no means small, and how many others there may be which remain unknown, no one can tell. Many of these substances give brilliant color reactions. Indol was first obtained by Bayer by the reduction of indigo. Later, Kühne and Nencki independently obtained indol with skatol by the putrefaction of albuminous substances.

There has been some difference of opinion as to the identity of the indol obtained by putrefaction and that which results from the reduction of indigo. According to Baumann neither indol nor skatol originates directly from the proteids, but both arise from the decomposition of a substance soluble in ether containing alcohol. Skatol is methyl indol.

Indoxyl is an easily decomposable substance, which gives some striking color reactions, among which may be mentioned the production of indigo-blue with ferric chloride in the presence of free hydrochloric acid. Skatol-carbonic acid is another product of putrefaction, E. and H. Salkowski having obtained 1.3 grams from 2 kilograms of moist fibrin after twenty-six days' putrefaction. Among the known color reactions. of this substance, Hoppe-Seyler mentions the following:

(1) If a dilute solution of this acid (1-1000) be treated with a few drops of pure hydrochloric acid of 1.2 specific gravity, and then with a few drops of potassium nitrate solution (2 percent.), a cherry-red coloration is produced, and later a red precipitate falls.

(2) If such a solution be mixed with an equal volume of hydrochloric acid, and then a few drops of chloride of lime solution (percent.) be added, a purple-red color is produced.

(3) Treated with a few drops of hydrochloric acid, then with two or three drops of a very dilute solution of ferric chloride, and heated, the mixture becomes intensely violet before boiling.

Skatol-carbonic acid is non-volatile.

Skatol-acetic acid has been obtained by Nencki by the anaërobic putrefaction of serum-albumin. The aqueous solutions of this substance give with ferric chloride a white cloudiness, which on warming becomes brick-red, and in more concentrated solution fire-red.

Both indirubin and indigo-blue may be formed by the oxidation of indol.

Knowing now that indol and its derivatives are formed in anaerobic putrefaction, and that in Dragendorff's scheme for the separation and identification of vegetable alkaloids these substances appear in the residues which are tested for morphine, and knowing the great number and variety of color reactions given by these substances, it may be asked how much reliance can be placed on the color tests for morphine?

Besides the indol bodies, certain other substances are formed in the anaërobic putrefaction of proteid substances. Among these are certain aromatic products of the putrefaction of tyrosine. The following may be mentioned:

(1) Hydroparacumaric acid (para-oxyphenyl-propionic acid). This substance gives with ferric chloride a distinct, but evanescent, blue coloration.

(2) Para-oxyphenyl-acetic acid. This substance gives with ferric chloride a pale grayish-violet, which soon changes to a dirty green color. Among other products of the anaerobic putrefaction of proteids phenol and parakresol may be mentioned.

Phenol gives with ferric chloride a violet color.

Parakresol gives with ferric chloride a blue coloration.

With the above-mentioned substances in a decomposing liver, and knowing that some of them at least are present in the amylic alcohol residue, following the process of Dragendorff, how much reliance, may again be asked, can be placed on the color reactions of morphine? The conscientious chemist who swears that he will tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth, may answer this question.

POISONS FORMED IN DECOMPOSING TISSUE IN THE PRESENCE OF ARSENIC.

It has already been shown that the presence of arsenic does not interrupt the anaërobic putrefaction by which those substances interfering with the reactions for morphine are formed. Besides this, it is known that certain highly poisonous substances may be obtained from the bodies of persons who have been embalmed with arsenic. From one arsenical body which had been buried for fourteen days, Selmi obtained, by extracting with ether the fluid rendered alkaline with baryta, a substance which formed in needles and which gave crystalline salts with acids. With sulphuric acid it gave a red color; with iodic acid and sulphuric acid it liberated free iodine, and gave a violet coloration; with nitric acid it gave a beautiful yellow, which deepened on the addition of caustic potash. This cadaver was apparently well preserved, and the crystalline substance obtained from it was found to be highly poisonous. From a second arsenical body Selmi obtained by the same process a larger quantity of a most virulent poison.

From the stomach of a hog which had been preserved in a solution of arsenious acid, the same investigator separated an arsenical organic base. This substance produced symptoms like those of strychnia. Also from the same stomach he obtained a substance which produced in frogs torpor and paralysis.

These researches throw some light upon a most interesting and curious point in the history of toxicology. It is well known that during a certain period of Italian history poisons were freely used. One of these was sold under the name of aqua toffana, while another was known as acquetta di Perugia. Probably many other similar solutions were sold to those who desired to rid themselves of friends or foes. There seems to have been some diversity in the method of preparation used by those engaged in supplying these poisons. Duclaux states that one of these solutions was prepared by eviscerating a pig, powdering the abdominal cavity with arsenic, suspending the animal, and catching the drippings from the decomposing tissue. Kobert states that another preparation was obtained by preserving the saliva of animals poisoned with arsenic, and allowing this fluid to undergo putrefactive changes. It will be seen. that by either of these methods powerful arsenical ptomaïnes may have been obtained. It will also be evident that these solutions may have owed their powerful action to the presence of toxicogenic germs, or, in other words, death may have been due to inoculation rather than to intoxication.

As has been stated in giving the experimental results obtained in the tests for morphine, anaerobic germs producing considerable quantities of gas were found in the liver. Another interesting point, which needs further study, was observed. Some of the putrefactive fluid resulting from the decomposition of the chopped liver contained a considerable amount of arsenic. This fluid was placed in a bottle and kept in the laboratory for six months. During this time the bottle was frequently opened. Whenever this was done a large amount of gas escaped with almost explosive rapidity. After the above-mentioned time it was decided to estimate the amount of arsenic in the fluid. Upon attempting to do this, it was unexpectedly found that the fluid contained not the slightest trace of arsenic. In other words, the arsenic had been given off from the fluid in the form of a gas. It was supposed at first that this was a new discovery; but upon looking the matter up it was found that Hünefeld, in the early part of the present century, found that tissues impregnated with arsenic gave off during putrefaction a garlic odor, and that later arsenic disappeared wholly from such tissue. This is an interesting fact, and one which needs further study.

POISONS FORMED DURING PUTREFACTION.

Methylguanidine.-This base, which has been found by Brieger and Bocklisch in decomposing flesh, is highly poisonous. The symptoms are marked by dyspnoea, muscular tremor, and general clonic convulsions. Two tenths of a gram administered to a guinea-pig produced the following symptoms: the respiration at once became rapid, and in a few minutes there were abundant evacuations of the bladder and bowels; the pupils rapidly dilated to the maximum, and then ceased to react; the, animal became motionless, though not paralyzed; dyspnoea set in, and the animal died in convulsions twenty minutes after the administration of the poison. Post-mortem examination showed the heart to be arrested in diastole, the intestines filled with fluid, the bladder contracted, the cortex of the kidney hyperæmic, but the papillæ of the kidneys were surprisingly pale.

Tetanine, tetanotoxine, spasmotoxine, and tetanus toxalbumins have been found in cultures of the tetanus bacillus. These substances produce violent clonic and tonic convulsions.

Patoammine.-Selmi obtained this substance from the urine of patients suffering from progressive paralysis, also of those with interstitial pneumonia. The substance produces convulsions, and probably consists of a mixture of bases.

Isoamylamine has been found in yeast which has undergone putrefactive changes. It is a colorless, strongly alkaline liquid, possessing a marked but not disagreeable odor. It is a highly energetic poison, producing rigor, convulsions, and death. Four milligrams caused the death of a greenfinch in three minutes.

Ethylendiamin has been found in a cancerous stomach. It produces uninterrupted convulsions.

Ethylidendiamin.-This substance was obtained from putrid fish by Brieger, and was found to induce dyspnoea and dilatation of the pupils. Trimethylendiamin.-This substance is present in cultures of the comma bacillus. It produces convulsions.

In the urine of men with epilepsy Férré found a substance which produces convulsions similar to those of strychnia. From like urine Griffiths has isolated a base.

With the germs obtained from the bodies of women dead with puerperal eclampsia, Gerdes has obtained a highly poisonous substance which produces convulsions.

Tyrotoxicon. This substance, first obtained by the writer in poisonous cheese, and subsequently in poisonous ice-cream, milk, and certain milk products, is a highly active poison. Small doses cause in kittens retching, vomiting, and purging. Similar doses in man produce like symptoms, together with marked constriction of the fauces. Fatal doses in man cause dilatation of the pupils, rapid breathing, hurried pulse, and depression of temperature.

Mytilotoxine. This substance, found in poisonous mussels, produces paralysis, resembling curare in its action.

Fugin, found in the roe, liver, stomach, and intestines of certain fish, has a curare-like action.

Ptomo-muscarines are frequently found in decomposing matter.

Neurine, found in decomposing tissue after five or six days, also has an action similar to that of curare.

According to Lustgarten, there is found in the dead skin resulting from severe burns a substance which produces symptoms similar to those of muscarine.

Adamkiewicz has obtained a substance which he believes to be the active agent in the production of cancer, and to which he has given the name of cancroin. He also proposes that this agent be used in the treatment of cancer, following the theory employed by Koch in the treatment of consumption. The substance is probably identical with neurine.

Susotoxine, a base isolated by Novy from cultures of the hog cholera bacillus, first retards, then increases, and finally again retards, respiration. Convulsive tremors occur at frequent intervals. A hundred milligrams produced death in a young rat, when given subcutaneously, in an hour and a half.

Cholin, found frequently in decomposing tissue, produces muscarinelike symptoms. It must be given, however, in large doses in order to produce poisonous effects. Brieger found that the fatal dose for a rabbit weighing one kilogram is about half a gram.

Mydatorine was first obtained by Brieger from putrid human viscera. It produces paroxsymal convulsions, diarrhoea, and dyspnoea.

Gadinine, which may be present in human fæces, is mildly poisonous, requiring from one half to one gram to kill a guinea-pig.

Typhotoxine is produced by the Eberth germ of typhoid fever. Its action has been studied only on mice and guinea-pigs. It produces at first slight salivation with increased respiration. The animals lose control over the muscles of the trunk and extremities, and fall down helpless upon their sides. The pupils become strongly dilated and cease to react to light. Death follows in from one to two days.

Mydaleine is present in putrefying cadaveric organs, such as the liver and spleen. It has the peculiar property, when injected subcutaneously, of causing a marked rise in temperature, sometimes as much as two degrees.

THE MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE OF LIFE INSURANCE

BY

BRANDRETH SYMONDS, A.M., M.D.

History. The growth of life insurance during the past hundred years is one of the most striking features of the period. The amounts invested have become enormous; the amounts which the companies have contracted to pay to their policy-holders are stupendous. On the 1st of January, 1893, there were sixty life insurance companies organized under the laws of the different States. The total assets of these companies amounted to over $919,000,000. The insurance which they had in force reached the gigantic total of over $4,897,000,000. This is greater than the debt of any country in the world. The mind cannot grasp the magnitude of the operations involved in the handling of this colossal trustfund. For in nearly all the companies which are mutual, or which share their profits largely with the policy-holders, these assets can be regarded only as a fund, set aside by the policy-holders, intrusted to the care of the companies, returnable to the policy-holders at the end of a given time, or to their heirs in the event of their prior death. It is therefore very much to the interest of the policy-holders that the companies be well managed in all respects. That they have been so in the past is well shown by the rapid progress life insurance has made in the last thirty years. During that time the life insurance companies reporting to the department of the State of New York have increased their assets from $37,000,000 to $903,000,000; the amount of insurance in force has increased from $183,000,000 to $4,199,000,000. While the United States has been the seat of the greatest expansion of life insurance, other countries have to some extent shared in its growth. In fact, the whole civilized world has participated; but this is especially true of Great Britain and her colonies.

The Anglo-Saxon race can claim the credit both of originating life insurance and of carrying it to its present magnificent proportions. We are told by Francis (Annals and Anecdotes of Life Insurance) that mutual insurance associations were known in Great Britain soon after the Conquest. "The necessity of providing for casualties by mutual assistance -in other words, insurance on its broadest and most rational basis-was practiced in the Saxon guild, the origin of which was very simple. Every freeman of fourteen being bound to find sureties to keep the peace, certain neighbors, composed of ten families, became bound for one another, either to produce any one of the number who should offend against the Norman law, or to make pecuniary satisfaction for the offense. To do