feet and legs, which are bared to the knees, searching for strained tendons, blisters, improperly cut nails, or untrimmed corns.

Having passed down the line, the men are about-faced and the tendo-achilles carefully examined, and as they raise one foot and then the other the soles are inspected. As a man passes from the table or bench he leaps to the ground and runs to his shoes and stockings. This is to show any bruised soles or periostitis of the tarsus. Any cases of blisters, improperly cut nails, or tenosynovitis are at once cared for by the lazareth helfer. Those with more serious disorders are sent to quarters or hospital.

At the same time each man's socks and boots are carefully inspected as to the degree of cleanliness. As the infantry regiments average in marching a kilometer in ten minutes, being often pressed to a kilometer in from seven and a half to eight minutes, each man carrying 27 kilograms, this care of feet is necessary. When tables or benches are not available, the trunk of a fallen tree or a block of stone is used as a place to conduct the inspection.

Body Inspection.-The entire body of every man in the German army is inspected by a company officer and a medical officer, careful search being made for any heart lesion, hernia, venereal disorder, skin disease, eczema, etc. This is in order that any physical defect that might be concealed by clothing or by the improper modesty or wilfulness of the enlisted man may be carefully noted, cared for, and reported.

CHAPTER XIV.

NAVAL HYGIENE.

THE term naval hygiene usually includes all that relates to maritime life, whether relating to war or to commerce. In a certain sense the application of hygienic measures to such a small and isolated community as found in a vessel is extremely simple. In modern vessels it is far easier than in those of even a decade ago. The improvements in construction, arrangement, and equipment have had a most salient influence upon the health of sailors and marines, and upon the comfort of passengers.

Though there have been important advancements in the construction and arrangement of vessels, it is still a difficult matter to supply pure air in sufficient quantities, because with the advancement in equipment there has been no relative increase of the air space available for each person. The air space on shipboard being necessarily limited, the average space per individual can only be indirectly increased by reducing the number of seamen to the lowest point permissible.

The vessel should be as large as possible with reference to the purpose for which it is intended, the arrangement of machinery and cargo should be such as to economize the utilization of space, and the size and location of the cabins should be regulated so as to afford a maximum amount of space for each person. The arrangement of cabins should be made in such a manner that it may be possible to secure complete isolation of any cases of infectious disease at some point removed from the seamen in their usual duties. The amount of space provided for each seaman is greater than had formerly been the case, but even at the present time it falls below theoretic

standards. The hospital cabins should be of greater space, because they are occupied during every hour of the day. These quarters should not be located in the forecastle, but at some point as far removed from the noise of the machinery as possible.

The cubic space allotted to each marine on war vessels has not been accurately determined and no data are available on this point. The fact that marines sleep in hammocks may be the cause of supplying a somewhat greater cubic space for them than for sailors on vessels of commerce where hammocks are not employed.

With regard to passenger ships, the German laws direct that each between-deck passenger have an air space of 2.85 cubic meters, and a floor space of 0.45 square meter. For first- and second-class passengers no directions have been made. The English laws direct that each man have 72 cubic feet of air space and 12 square feet of floor space.

Ventilation.-In modern vessels propelled by steam the introduction of forced ventilation by the use of fans or steam jets is a comparatively easy matter. In this manner a definite air-supply can be assured, either by propulsion of fresh air or extraction of the vitiated air. By this method the defects arising from the small amount of air space usually supplied can be remedied to a great extent.

According to information derived from the Bureau of Construction and Repair of the Navy Department of the United States, "All ships of war are ventilated on two principles, natural and artificial. Natural ventilation is obtained through hatches, ventilating ducts, and other openings leading directly to the compartment to be ventilated, and depending upon a supply of air through cowls which are turned toward the wind. All livingspaces are further ventilated artificially, either by means of steam or electric blowers, which supply the air to or exhaust it from the compartments in question. Some compartments are fitted with both supply and exhaust. blowers, but in general only one system is fitted, a natural

exhaust being obtained through the hatches or other openings into the compartment.

"No rules can be given for the cubic meters of space allowed per man. This is entirely dependent upon the design of the ship and the number of men carried. The design of the ventilating system, however, is such as to renew the air in various spaces in certain intervals of time, which may be stated approximately as follows: General crew space, the air to be changed once in eight minutes; officers' quarters, once in twelve minutes: engine-room or steering-engine room (where the air is hot and vitiated), once in two minutes; dynamo-room, once every three-fourths of a minute.

"The supply of air to a compartment depends not only on its capacity and the number of men in it, but also upon the temperature, which in some parts of the ship is excessively high, and in others is naturally low. No figures on efficiency are available."

Dr. Coppinger' states that "the question of air space and ventilation, as applied to men-of-war, has always been a difficult problem, and the progress of modern naval architecture, necessitated by altered conditions of warfare, tends in many ways to make its solution more difficult of attainment. Among these conditions may be mentioned (1) the very great amount of air space occupied by machinery and stores connected with torpedo work, and (2) the introduction of water-tight bulkheads. These latter partitions are a great source of difficulty in respect to obtaining complete circulation of air throughout the ship.

"The introduction of the turret and barbet system of construction into battleships, with the consequent reduction and almost complete abolition of apertures for natural ventilation by means of ports and hatchways, has rendered necessary a very general introduction of artificial ventilation by means of rotary fans, to supplement artificial ventilation by means of funnel and funnel casing." 1 Trans. Seventh International Congress of Hygiene.

In order to cool the air between decks of vessels while in the tropics, it has been suggested that this might be accomplished by the aid of compressed air. This may be utilized both as a source of motion for propelling the air and also to abstract heat when undergoing expansion.

Heating of the Vessel.—The application of steam to navigation makes it possible to utilize the exhaust steam for purposes of heating. This precludes the attempt to heat by any other methods, and affords a safe and satisfactory solution to this problem, which formerly gave rise to such great difficulties.

Lighting. The employment of electricity on all large modern vessels makes it possible to utilize this method of lighting; thus a great factor in the vitiation of the air in certain parts of ships is removed.

Cleansing the Vessel.-The excessive use of water for purposes of cleansing should be prohibited. It was formerly the custom to keep the floors constantly soaked by the frequent washing of the ship, thus giving rise to a most unhealthful condition from dampness. A satisfactory degree of cleanliness can be maintained without the constant application of copious amounts of water, and with the use of steam for heating purposes modern vessels are much dryer than formerly, and consequently more healthful.

The interior of iron ships is apt to be damp on account of the condensation of moisture on the sides of the vessels. The prevention of the condensation of moisture. is sought through the application of paint containing small particles of cork, or a cork lining. The use of wood in modern warships has been avoided as much as possible for two reasons: First, the danger from fire; and second, the disastrous effects from splintering of the wood by perforating shot. The first objection to the use of wood is efficiently removed by the use of fire-proofing materials which have lately come into use, but the second objection remains.

Water-supply.-Great care should be exercised in