LESSON XIV.

Relative Pronouns.

127. Relative pronouns are so called because they always relate to some noun or phrase going before.

The noun or phrase to which the relative pronoun relates is called its antecedent. Thus in the sentence: The boy who learns his lessons, deserves praise, the noun boy is the antecedent to the relative who.

128. The Relative pronouns are who, which, that, and what.

129. Who refers to persons only, which to all other animals and to things without life.

130. The relative that refers to both persons and things, and serves to prevent the too frequent use of who and which.

131. The relatives who and which are the same in both singular and plural, and are declined thus:

132. The relative that is also the same in both numbers, but is used only in the Nominative and Objective cases, which are alike.

133. What is called a Compound relative, because it unites in itself both the relative and the antecedent, and may always be separated into that which, or the thing which. Thus the sentence: I know WHAT you want, is the same as I know THAT WHICH you want.

What is used only in the Nominative and Objective cases, which are always alike.

134. By adding ever or soever to the relatives who, which, and what, other compound relatives are formed.

Thus :

Whoever
Whichever

Whatever.

Whosoever

Whichsoever

Whatsoever

135. Who, which, and what, when used in asking questions, are called Interrogative pronouns ; as WHO is that person? WHICH of the boys? WHAT do you want?

LESSON XV.

Adjective Pronouns.

136. Adjective Pronouns are so called because they do not, like real pronouns, stand instead of nouns, but, like adjectives, are joined with nouns expressed or understood.

Adjective pronouns are sometimes called Pronominal adjectives.

137. There are four classes of adjective pronouns namely, Possessive pronouns, Demonstrative pronouns, Distributive pronouns, and Indefinite pronouns.

138. The Possessive pronouns are eight in number, namely: my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, and their.

[These Possessive pronouns must be carefully distinguished in parsing from the Possessive cases of the Personal Pronouns, viz., MINE, THINE, HIS, HERS, ITS, OURS, YOURS, and THEIRS. In meaning there is no difference between the two sets of words: This is my book,

that is his book, being the same in meaning as This book is mine, that book is his. But in construction there is this difference between them: The Possessive pronouns are always followed by the nouns to which they refer, whereas the nouns which the Possessive cases of the Personal pronouns depend upon, are always understood.] 139. The Demonstrative pronouns are five in number, namely: this, that, yon, same, and selfsame. This becomes these, and that becomes those before a noun in the plural number.

140. This refers to a near person or thing; that to one more distant. This also refers to the person or thing last spoken of; that to one spoken of previously.

[Thus if I am speaking of a book which is in my hand or near at hand, I will say: THIS book; but if I refer to a book that is at a distance from me, or nearer to you than to me, I should say THAT book.]

141. Yon is more frequently used in the Comparative degree: yonder.

142. The Distributive pronouns are four in number, namely: each, every, either, and neither.

143. The Distributive pronouns are always joined with singular nouns, expressed or understood. Thus: Each boy and girl, that is, each boy and each girl; Every man, woman, and child, that is, every man, every woman, and every child; Each has done his duty, that is, each person has done his duty.

144. [The Distributive pronouns either and neither must not be confounded with the Conjunctions either and neither. When either and neither are joined with nouns expressed or understood, they are distributive pronouns, as in the sentences: "I will not join either party"; "I will join neither party"; "You may take either of these two

C

books"; Neither of the two books belongs to me. But when either is followed by or, and neither by nor, they are conjunctions, as in the sentences: Either you or I must go; Neither this party nor the other deserves success.]

145. The Indefinite pronouns are seven in number, namely: any, some, one, none, other, another, and such.

[In some grammars several other words are classed as Indefinite pronouns, such as few, many, all, several, &c. But these are really common adjectives, and should be so classed.]

LESSON XVI.
Verbs.

146. A verb is a word which denotes action or the doing of something; as to strike, to write, to walk.

147. [Actions may be regarded as of two kinds :--(1.) There are actions which cannot be performed without affecting some object. Thus one cannot perform the act of striking, without striking some person or thing. That person or thing is called the object of the action. In like manner one cannot perform the act of writing without writing something: a letter, or a copy, or a book. All such actions may be called TRANSITIVE actions. The word transitive means "passing over to," and these actions may be so called, because they pass over, as it were, from the agent who performs them, to the object acted upon.

(2.) There are actions, which, when performed by the agent, cannot affect any other person or thing. Thus the act of walking affects only the agent, that is, the person who performs it. The same may be said of the acts of sleeping, of dreaming, of running, of rising, &c. All such actions may be called INTRANSITIVE actions, that is, actions which, when performed by an agent, do not pass over to any object.]

148. Verbs, as regards their meaning, are either Transitive verbs, or Intransitive verbs..

149. A Transitive verb is a verb that denotes a transitive action, that is, an action which cannot be performed without affecting some object; as to strike, to write, to love, to eat, &c.

150. An Intransitive verb is a verb that denotes an intransitive action, that is, an action which cannot affect any object; as to walk, to sleep, to dream, to rise, to fall, &c.

151. [Some verbs do not denote actions, properly speaking, but only states of existence; such as the verbs: to be, to exist, to live, to stand, to sit, to lie, to sleep, &c. Such verbs are called NEUTER verbs. The word neuter means "neither," and these verbs are so called, because they denote the person or thing spoken of as neither acting, nor acted upon, but only as existing in one state or another. Hence verbs are sometimes distinguished into three classes: (1.) Transitive verbs, which denote transitive actions; (2.) Intransitive verbs, which denote intransitive actions; and (3.) Neuter verbs, which denote different states of being or existence.]

LESSON XVII.

Simple Moods of a Verb.

152. The different parts of a verb are called its Moods and Tenses.

The moods of a verb serve to show the different modes in which the action may be denoted.

153. [Thus-(1.) The action may be denoted as either actually taking place at the present time, or as having actually taken place at a past time, or as actually to take place at a future time. The form of the verb that denotes this, is called the Indicative Mood, because