319. Adjectives and Participles differ in construction thus: The Adjective is taken in connexion with the noun to which it refers--it qualifies it; but the Participle is not taken in connexion with the noun to which it refers. Thus in the sentence: I have received your letter, the participle received, refers to the noun, letter, but does not qualify it. In like manner, in the sentence: John has been admitted to the school, the participle admitted, refers to the noun John, but does not qualify it. If the noun to which a participle refers is taken in connexion with it, the participle is employed as an adjective, and should be parsed as a Participial adjective, as in the sentences: It is a received opinion; It is an admitted fact.]

320. An Adjective standing alone with the definite article before it, generally refers to a plural noun understood, as The good alone are happy, i.e. Good persons alone are happy persons,

321. Sometimes an Adjective standing alone is used as an Abstract noun (i.e. the name of a quality), as, There is but one step from the sublime to the ridicu lous, i.e. from sublimity to ridiculousness.

322. Nouns are often used as Adjectives. Thus the noun sea may be used to qualify the noun water, as sea water. In the same way we say a gold coin; a silver mug; a Sunday dress; a cat-anddog life; drawing-room furniture, &c.

323. The Distributive pronouns Each, Every, Either, and Neither, can be joined only to singular nouns. [See § 143.]

324. [The word Every, however, may be joined to a plural noun preceded by a Numeral adjective, as Every ten years; Every thirteen weeks; Every hundred men. In such constructions the Numeral adjective and noun are to be regarded as equivalent to a compound noun, or collective noun in the singular number.]

LESSON XXXIV.

Fifth Rule of Syntax.

(FIRST RULE OF GOVERNMENT.)

325. Transitive verbs govern nouns and pronouns in the Objective case,

As, John struck the table.

James has written his copy.

My father loves me.

326. The same rule applies (1.) to Transitive participles, and (2.) to Participial nouns derived from transitive verbs; as, Gentlemen take great pleasure in hunting the fox; Hunting the fox is a favourite amusement.

327. The Object of a Transitive verb may be :— (1.) The Objective case of a noun or proas John struck the table; My

noun ;

father loves me.

(2.) The Infinitive mood of a verb; as, John desires to learn.

(3.) A sentence or part of a sentence; as, I know how you have spent your time.

328. [The Object of a verb may be found by placing the Interrogative pronoun Whom or What after the verb, and the answer to the question thus formed will be the Object. Thus as regards the sentence: I know how you have spent your time, ask the question: I know what? and the answer is How you have spent your time, and this sentence, therefore, is the Object of the transitive verb I know.]

329. Several Transitive verbs take two Objects, one called the Direct Object or the Primary Object, and the other the Indirect Object or the Secondary Object; as

Forgive us our TRESPASSES.

He promised HIM α SITUATION.
Give that poor MAN SOMETHING.

330. [The Direct Object is always governed by the Transitive verb. The Indirect Object is governed by a preposition expressed or understood. Thus in the first example, trespasses is the Direct Object, governed by the verb forgive, and us is the Indirect Object governed by the preposition to understood.]

331. Several Passive verbs govern an Objective case, when that case refers to a different person or thing from the Nominative or Subject of the verb; as,

He was paid a shilling.

I have been promised a situation.

The dead were refused Christian burial.

332. Some Intransitive verbs may be used as Transitive verbs, that is, may be made to govern an Objective case :

(1.) When the Intransitive verb is used in a causative sense; as, To gallop a horse, i.e. to cause him to gallop;

(2.) When the Intransitive verb has for its object a noun of similar meaning; as, To run a race; To live a good life; To fight a battle; To walk a mile; &c.

(3.) When the Intransitive verb is followed by a preposition which is taken in connexion with it, and converts it into a Compound Transitive verb; as, John laughed at him; Fortune has smiled on him.

333. [In such constructions the preposition really belongs to the verb, and should be parsed with it. This is clear from the fact that such Compound Verbs may be used in the Passive voice. Thus the example, John laughed at him, may be expressed passively, He was laughed at by John; and in like manner, Fortune has smiled on him, may be converted into: He has been smiled on by fortune.]

334. In such expressions as, To fight IT out, To trip IT o'er the green, &c., the pronoun IT stands for a suppressed noun of similar meaning to the verb. Thus To fight it out means To fight the fight out, and To trip it o'er the green, means To trip the dance o'er the green.

335. When the Object of a verb is expressed by several words, the pronoun It is often placed instead of it immediately after the verb, and the real Object removed to the end of the sentence. Thus, You should always consider it a shameful thing to treat poor dumb animals with cruelty.

[In this example, the pronoun it stands for the phrase to treat poor dumb animals with cruelty, which is the real Object of the verb consider.]

LESSON XXXV.

Sixth Rule of Syntax.

(SECOND RULE OF GOVERNMENT.)

336. A Transitive Verb governs a verb that depends upon it in the Infinitive Mood;

As, Cease to do evil; He learns to read.

337. This and the Fifth Rule of Syntax may be combined into one general rule, viz. :—

Every Transitive Verb must have an Object expressed or understood, and that Object may be either (1.) the Objective case of a noun or pronoun, or (2.) the Infinitive mood of a verb, or (3.) a Sentence or part of a sentence.

338. [Observe that it is only Transitive verbs that govern an Infinitive mood. Intransitive Verbs have no governing power, as the actions they signify cannot affect any person or thing except the agent (See § 147). When, therefore, an Intransitive verb is followed by an Infinitive, as often happens, this Infinitive should not be parsed as depending upon the Intransitive verb, but upon some word or phrase understood. Thus in the sentence, John has gone to buy a book, the Infinitive to buy does not depend upon the Intransitive verb has gone, but upon for or in order understood. This is the case with every Infinitive mood that denotes the PURPOSE or MOTIVE of an action; as, They have come to town to visit their friends; He is travelling on the Continent to recruit his health; John has gone home to spend his vacation.]

339. Transitive participles, and also nouns and adjectives which imply action (bodily or mental), have also the power of governing an Infinitive mood; as, Expecting to see you; Prepared to die ;