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profuse in their praises; but Apollonius, after maintaining a sorrowful silence for a time, said: "You have my praise and admiration, Cicero, and Greece my pity and commiseration, since those arts and that eloquence, which are the only glories that remain to her, will now be transferred by you to Rome." After his return to Italy, he filled several important offices, among them the consulship, in which his services were so eminent that he received at the hands of his grateful countrymen the proud title of "father of his country." At last, after many changes of fortune, he was murdered by emissaries of Antony, against whom he had delivered a series of philippics.

The character of Cicero has been admirably portrayed by Ritter: "With the nicest knowledge of men and things, without which no orator can be great, he combined a fine sense of justice and benevolence, love for his friends, who remained true to him through the various changes of his fortunes; unwearying diligence, and a shrewd and comprehensive forecast of future events, and the inevitable consequences of the present position of affairs. To be as great as he was brilliant in political life, he only wanted that perfect enthusiasm which is engendered in the mind by confidence in its own resources, and resolute firmness in the moment of action."

During his later years, Cicero employed his leisure in writing a number of philosophical works, in several of which he has set forth more or less completely his views of education. He demanded of teachers that they should be just, and neither too mild nor too severe. Punishment should be resorted to only after other means

of discipline have failed; it should have nothing degrading in its form, and should never be administered in anger, as it is then impossible to observe moderation. The pupil should be made to feel that correction springs from the desire to do him good. Cicero held noble views of man. "The man who knows himself," he says, "will find within himself traces of the divine; and, while he considers himself an image of the Deity, he will be careful to avoid those feelings and actions which would injure this great gift. The soul is derived immediately from the Deity. It retains ties of relationship with celestial beings; and hence it comes to pass that, amid all animated nature, man is the only creature which possesses the knowledge of a Supreme Being. The possession of this knowledge is, then, sufficient to entitle man to point to his upward origin. Nature has placed in us certain necessary and elementary notions, which form the basis of all true wisdom and science." Education should begin with the earliest childhood; and during this sensitive period the amusements and surroundings should be favorable to refinement and intelligence. The memory should be cultivated; and, to this end, extracts from Grecian and Roman writers should be learned by heart. Religion is wisely placed at the basis of moral culture. The young man should choose a calling for which his tastes and abilities fit him. The study of Greek was held important; but the natural sciences, in which Cicero himself was deficient, were but lightly esteemed. The study of politics and philosophy was looked upon as the highest intellectual pursuit.

(B.) SENECA.

Seneca, who has been placed by a distinguished author among the heathen "seekers after God," lived during a period of great moral degeneracy—a fact that renders the purity of his philosophical teachings all the more remarkable. He was born at Cordova, in Spain, two years before the beginning of the Christian era. When quite young he was taken by his father to Rome to be educated. "The things taught," says Canon Farrar, "were chiefly arithmetic, grammar-both Greek and Latin, reading, and the repetition of the chief Latin poets. There was also a good deal of recitation and of theme-writing on all kinds of trite historical subjects. The arithmetic seems to have been mainly of a very simple and severely practical kind, especially the computation of interest and compound interest; and the philology generally, both grammar and criticism, was singularly narrow, uninteresting, and useless. Of what conceivable advantage can it have been to any human being to know the name of the mother of Hecuba, of the nurse of Anchises, of the step-mother of Anchemolus, the number of years Acestes lived, and how many casks of wine the Sicilians gave to the Phrygians? Yet these were the despicable minutia which every schoolmaster was then expected to have at his fingers' ends, and every boy-scholar to learn at the point of the ferule-trash which was only fit to be unlearned the moment it was known. For this kind of verbal criticism and fantastic archæology Seneca, who had probably gone through it all, expresses a profound and very rational contempt."

After traveling some time in Greece and Egypt,

Seneca returned to Rome and pleaded in the courts of law, meeting with eminent success. He was subsequently banished to Corsica for eight years, which period he spent in philosophical studies. "There is no land," he wrote at this time, "where man can not dwell

-no land where he can not uplift his eyes to heaven; wherever we are, the distance of the divine from the human remains the same. So, then, so long as my eyes are not robbed of that spectacle with which they can not be satiated, so long as I may look upon the sun and moon, and fix my lingering gaze on the other constellations, and consider their rising and setting and the spaces between them and the causes of their less and greater speed-while I may contemplate the multitude of stars glittering throughout the heaven, some stationary, some revolving, some suddenly blazing forth, others dazzling the gaze with a flood of fire as though they fell, and others leaving over a long space their trails of light; while I am in the midst of such phenomena, and mingle myself, as far as a man may, with things celestial-while my soul is ever occupied in contemplations so sublime as these, what matters it what ground I tread?"

Upon his recall to Rome, he was appointed tutor to Nero; but, in spite of the excellence of his instruction, he was unable to control the depraved passions of his pupil. He was finally condemned to death in the year 65 A. D.-a standing testimony to the injustice and corruption of his age.

Some of Seneca's teachings are in striking accord with Scripture truth. "God is near us," he says; "he A divine spirit dwells within us who watches

is in us.
over us and observes our evil and our good.

With.

out God, no man can be good." He believed that man is naturally inclined to evil. It is the office of education to correct the evil tendencies of our nature. The teacher should exert a purifying and elevating influence upon his pupils, leading them by precept and example to virtue. In punishment there should be no anger, which destroys the benefit of chastisement. "Who condemns quickly," Seneca says, "condemns willingly; and who punishes too much, punishes improperly." In dealing with pupils, differences of character should be taken into consideration. The destiny of man is thought and action; and both capacities should be cultivated. A multiplicity of studies, ending in superficiality, should be avoided, and thorough work in a narrow compass insisted on. The study of nature was regarded as important; for it is here that the works of the Deity are investigated and wisdom acquired for the proper ordering of life. Gymnastics was held as serviceable when pursued with moderation; but, when employed to form the athlete, it was thought to exhaust the mind and render it unfit for study. The faithful and competent teacher stood high in Seneca's estimation. "What the teacher," he says, "who instructs us in the sciences imparts to us in noble effort and intellectual culture is worth more than he receives; for, not the matter, but the trouble; not the desert, but only the labor, is paid for."

(c.) QUINTILIAN.

Quintilian, the celebrated writer on rhetoric, was born at Calahorra, in Spain, about the year 42 A. D.; and, like most other great men of his time, he was educated

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